Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-29T13:20:11.007Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Are Anti-Prostitution Advertising Campaigns Effective? An Experimental Study

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 August 2022

Gemma Sáez Open the ORCID record for Gemma Sáez [Opens in a new window] ,
José Antonio Muñiz-Velázquez Open the ORCID record for José Antonio Muñiz-Velázquez [Opens in a new window] ,
Guido Corradi Open the ORCID record for Guido Corradi [Opens in a new window] ,
Alejandro J. Tapia Frade  and
Pilar Aguilar Open the ORCID record for Pilar Aguilar [Opens in a new window]
Gemma Sáez
Affiliation:
Universidad de Extremadura (Spain)
José Antonio Muñiz-Velázquez
Affiliation:
Universidad Loyola Andalucía (Spain)
Guido Corradi
Affiliation:
Universidad Camilo José Cela (Spain)
Alejandro J. Tapia Frade
Affiliation:
Universidad Loyola Andalucía (Spain)
Pilar Aguilar*
Affiliation:
Universidad Loyola Andalucía (Spain)
*
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Pilar Aguilar. Universidad Loyola Andalucía. Departamento de Psicología. Sevilla (Spain). E-mail: mpaguilar@uloyola.es
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Many governments invest public funds in communication interventions and campaigns against prostitution and sexual exploitation in an attempt to change attitudes toward prostitution and eventually decrease its consumption. Despite the considerable investment that public institutions have made in campaigns against prostitution and sexual slavery, no known empirical studies have evaluated the effectiveness of such campaigns on attitudes and behavioral change. The messages of these campaigns usually center on one of two thematic focuses: Prostituted women who suffer exploitation and male consumers of prostitution. The present study examines the impact of different anti-prostitution advertisements on attitudes among male participants (N = 155 male participants). Specifically, the experiment aims to test the differential effect of these two focuses, compared to a no-advertisement control condition, on social support for prostitution, negative and incorrect beliefs about prostitutes, and family values related to prostitution. The results show that compared with the no-advertisement control condition, advertisements focused on men who use prostitutes have a significant effect on social support toward prostitution and incorrect beliefs about prostitutes, whereas advertisements focused on female prostitutes have no effect. The results have practical implications for governments and councils regarding the efficacy of this kind of public communication campaign against prostitution consumption.

Keywords

experimental studygovernment campaignsmale participantsprostitution consumptionprostitution advertisements
Type
Research Article
Information
The Spanish Journal of Psychology , Volume 25 , 2022 , e21
Copyright
© Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

Acknowledgements: The authors thank the Ayuntamiento de Sevilla, especially the Delegación del Servicio de la Mujer and its managers, for their collaboration on this research.

Funding Statement: This study was supported by the research funds from the Universidad Loyola Andalucía and by the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación del Gobierno de España, under Grant FFI2015–67569–C2–1–P.

Conflicts of Interest: None.

References

Ajzen, I. (1985). From intentions to action: A theory of planned behavior. In Kull, J. and Beckmann, J. (Eds.), Action control. From cognition to behavior (pp. 11–39). Springer-Verlog. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-69746-3_2Google Scholar
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Process, 50, 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-TCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (2005). The influence of attitudes on behavior. In Albarracín, D., Johnson, B. T., & Zanna, M. P. (Eds.), The handbook of attitudes (pp. 173–221). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.Google Scholar
Andrighetto, L., Baldissarri, C., Gabbiadini, A., Sacino, A., Valtorta, R. R., & Volpato, C. (2018). Objectified conformity: Working self-objectification increases conforming behavior. Social Influence, 13(2), 78–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510.2018.1439769CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashley, L., O’Connor, D. B., & Jones, F. (2011). Effects of emotional disclosure in caregivers: Moderating role of alexithymia. Stress and Health, 27, 376–387. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.1388CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asociación para la Prevención, Reinserción y Atención a la Mujer Prostituida. (2017). La prostitución. Claves para reflexionar sobre un problema [Prostitution. Keys to reflect on a problem]. https://apramp.org/download/la-prostitucion-claves-para-reflexionar-sobre-un-problema/Google Scholar
Atkin, C. K., & Rice, R. E. (2013). Theory and principles of public communication campaigns. In Rice, R. E. & Atkin, C. K. (Eds.), Public communication campaigns, (pp. 2–19). SAGE Publications. http://doi.org/10.4135/9781544308449.n1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ayikwa, L. C., De Jager, J. W., & Van Zyl, D. (2020). Validating the theory of planned behavior model extended to social marketing behavioral enhancers using structural equation modeling. Social Marketing Quarterly, 26(4), 276–296. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524500420951593CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ayuntamiento de Sevilla. (2016). II Plan de Acción Integral para luchar contra la trata, la prostitución y otras formas de explotación sexual (2016–2020) [II Action Plan to combat trafficking, prostitution and other forms of sexual exploitation (2016-2020)]. https://www.sevilla.org/servicios/mujer-igualdad/planes-municipales/plan-integral-contra-la-prostitucion/ii-plan-de-accion-integral-1.pdfGoogle Scholar
Belza, M. J., De La Fuente, L., Suárez, M., Vallejo, F., García, M., López, M., Barrio, G., & Bolea, A. (2008). Men who pay for sex in Spain and condom use: Prevalence and correlates in a representative sample of the general population. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 84, 207–211. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2008.029827CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, R. (1998). Shame, guilt & responses to non-profit & public-sector ads. International Journal of Advertising, 17(4), 483–499. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.1998.11104734CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benoit, C., Smith, M., Jansson, M., Healey, P., & Magnuson, D. (2018). “The prostitution problem”: Claims, evidence, and policy outcomes. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48(7), 1905–1923. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1276-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bigné Alcañiz, J. E., & Sánchez García, J. (2001). Antecedentes y efectos de la actitud hacia el anuncio. Propuesta de un modelo de variables latentes [Background and effects of the attitude towards the announcement. Proposal for a latent variable model]. Investigaciones Europeas de Dirección y Economía de la Empresa, 7(2), 41–62.Google Scholar
Blythe, J. (2013). Consumer behavior. SAGE Publications.Google Scholar
Bohner, G., & Dickel, N. (2011). Attitudes and attitude change. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 391–417. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131609CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brennan, L., & Binney, W. (2010). Fear, guilt and shame appeals in social marketing. Journal of Business Research, 63, 140–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2009.02.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brierly, S. (1995). The advertising handkbook. Routledge.Google Scholar
Burnette, M. L., Lucas, E., Ilgen, M., Frayne, S. M., Mayo, J., & Weitlauf, J. C. (2008). Prevalence and health correlates of prostitution among patients entering treatment. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 337–344. https://doi.org//10.1001/archpsyc.65.3.337CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buttmann, N., Nielsen, A., Munk, C., Liaw, K. L., & Kjaer, S. K. (2011). Sexual risk taking behavior: Prevalence and associated factors. A population-based study of 22.000 Danish men. BMC Public Health, 11, Article 764. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-764CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carrera, P., Caballero, A., Fernández, I., & Muñoz, D. (2017). Abstractness leads people to base their behavioral intentions on desired attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 70, 27–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2016.12.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castellanos Torres, E., & Ranea Triviño, B. (2013). Investigación sobre prostitución y trata de mujeres [Research on prostitution and trafficking in women]. Asociación de Promoción de Servicios Sociales. https://fundadeps.org/wp-content/uploads/eps_media/recursos/documentos/629/Investigacion%20sobre%20prostitucion%20y%20trata%20de%20mujeres%20APROSERS.pdfGoogle Scholar
Chédotal, C., Berthe, B., de Peyrelongue, B., & Le Gall-Ely, M. (2017). Using guilt appeals in communication. Recherche et Applications en Marketing (English Edition), 32(4), 91–110. https://doi.org/10.1177/2051570717706830CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cho, S.-Y., Dreher, A., & Neumayer, E. (2013). Does legalized prostitution increase human trafficking? World Development, 41, 67–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.05.023CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christian, D., Zdeněk, L., & Lucie, V. (2014). Attitude toward advertising in general and attitude toward a specific type of advertising - A first empirical approach. Journal of Competitiveness, 6(1), 87–103. https://doi.org/10.7441/joc.2014.01.06Google Scholar
Cimino, A. N. (2012). A predictive theory of intentions to exit street-level prostitution. Violence Against Women, 18(10), 1235–1252. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801212465153CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corvi, E., & Bonera, M. (2010, October 15–16). The effectiveness of advertising: A literature review [Paper presentation]. 10th Global Conference on Business and Economics. Rome, Italy. https://www.bartleby.com/essay/The-Effectiveness-of-Advertising-a-Literature-Review-P3EJPCD3D6VA. ISBN: 978-0-9830452-1-2Google Scholar
David, P., & Rundle-Thiele, S. (2018). Social marketing theory measurement precision: A theory of planned behavior illustration. Journal of Social Marketing, 8(2), 182–201. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSOCM-12-2016-0087CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duhachek, A., Agrawal, N., & Han, D. (2012). Guilt versus shame: Coping, fluency, and framing in the effectiveness of responsible drinking messages. Journal of Marketing Research, 49(6), 928–941. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmr.10.0244CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elliott, M. A., & Armitage, C. J. (2009). Promoting drivers’ compliance with speed limits: Testing an intervention based on the theory of planned behavior. British Journal of Psychology, 100(1), 111–132. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712608X318626CrossRefGoogle Scholar
European Network for HIV/STI Prevention and Health Promotion among Migrant Sex Workers. (2009). Sex work in Europe. A mapping of the prostitution scene in 25 European countries. TAMPEP International Foundation. https://tampep.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/TAMPEP-2009-European-Mapping-Report.pdfGoogle Scholar
Eurostat. (2018). Data collection on trafficking in human beings in the EU. Publications Office of the European Union.Google Scholar
Farley, M. (2017). Risks of prostitution: When the person is the product. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 3(1), 97–108. https://doi.org/10.1086/695670CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Felton, G. (2013). Advertising: Concept and copy. W. W. Norton & Company.Google Scholar
Fennis, B. M., & Stroebe, W. (2020). The psychology of advertising (3rd Ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429326981CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (2010). Predicting and changing behavior: The reasoned action approach. Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203838020Google Scholar
Garrido-Lora, M., Ramos-Serrano, M., & Rodríguez-Centeno, J. C. (2007). Análisis de la publicidad institucional del Estado español: Objetivos y cualidades discursivas [Analysis of the institutional advertisement of the Spanish state: Objectives and discursive qualities]. Comunicación. Revista Internacional de Comunicación Audiovisual, Publicidad y Estudios Culturales, 5, 377–389.Google Scholar
Gawronski, B., & LeBel, E. P. (2008). Understanding patterns of attitude change: When implicit measures show change, but explicit measures do not. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(5), 1355–1361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.04.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gelb, B. D., & Pickett, C. M. (1983). Attitude-toward-the-AD: Links to humor and to advertising effectiveness. Journal of Advertising, 12(2), 34–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.1983.10672838CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gheorghe, I. R., Radu, A. V., Gheorghe, C. M., Negoiță, O., & Purcărea, V. L. (2017). Tit for tat: A perspective on health care social marketing shock advertising. Journal of Emerging Trends in Marketing and Management, 1(1), 57–66.Google Scholar
Gresham, L. G., & Shimp, T. A. (1985). Attitude toward the advertisement and brand attitudes: A classical conditioning perspective. Journal of Advertising, 14(1), 10–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.1985.10672924CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagstedt, J., Korsell, L., & Skagerö, A. (2009). In the land of prohibition? Clients and trafficked women in Sweden. In Di Nicola, A., Cauduro, A., Lombardi, M., & Ruspini, P. (Eds.), Prostitution and human trafficking. Focus on clients (pp. 163–205). Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harkness, J. A., & Schoua-Glusberg, A. (1998). Questionnaires in Translation. ZUMA-Nachrichten Spezial, 3, 87–127.Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F., & Preacher, K. J. (2014). Statistical mediation analysis with a multicategorical independent variable. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 67(3), 451–470. https://doi.org/10.1111/bmsp.12028CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawkins, N., Richards, P. S., Granley, H. M., & Stein, D. M. (2004). The impact of exposure to the thin-ideal media image on women. Eating Disorders, 12(1), 35–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/10640260490267751CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hengartner, M. P., Islam, M. N., Haker, H., & Rössler, W. (2015). Mental health and functioning of female sex workers in Chittagong, Bangladesh. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 6, Article 176. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00176CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoeken, H., & Sinkeldam, J. (2014). The role of identification and perception of just outcome in evoking emotions in narrative persuasion. Journal of Communication, 64(5), 935–955. http://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12114CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hornik, R. C. (2002). Public health communication: Evidence for behavior change. Routledge. http://doi.org/10.4324/9781410603029CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hornik, R. C. (2012). Why can’t we sell human rights like we sell soap? In Goodman, R., Jinks, D., & Woods, A. K. (Eds.), Understanding social action, promoting human rights (pp. 47–69). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195371895.003.0003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Igartua, J.-J., & Hayes, A. F. (2021). Mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: Concepts, computations, and some common confusions. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 24, Article E49. https://doi.org/10.1017/SJP.2021.46CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Instituto Nacional de Estadística. (2004). Encuesta de salud y hábitos sexuales. Resultados [The Health and Sexual Habits Survey. Results]. Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e Igualdad. https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/es/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736176785&menu=resultados&idp=1254735573175Google Scholar
Jakobsson, N., & Kotsadam, A. (2013). The law and economics of international sex slavery: Prostitution laws and trafficking for sexual exploitation. European Journal of Law and Economics, 35(1), 87–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10657-011-9232-0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jeong, H.-J., Jo, H.-S., Jung, S.-M., & Lee, J. (2014). Factors related to condom use behavior among club-working women in South Korea: Importance of subjective norms and customer-related attitudes. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health, 26(2), 147–159. http://doi.org/10.1177/1010539512436873CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, K. G., Johnson, A. M., Wellings, K., Sonnenberg, P., Field, N., Tanton, C., Erens, B., Clifton, S., Datta, J., Mitchel, K. R., Prah, P., & Mercer, C. H. (2015). The prevalence of, and factors associated with, paying for sex among men resident in Britain: Findings from the Third National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (Natsal–3). Sexually Transmitted Infections, 91, 116–123. https://doi.org/10.1136/sextrans-2014-051683CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laczniak, R. N., & Carlson, L. (1989). Examining the influence of attitude-toward-the-ad on brand attitudes. Journal of Business Research, 19(4), 303–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-2963(89)90012-XCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lakens, D., Scheel, A. M., & Isager, P. M. (2018). Equivalence testing for psychological research: A tutorial. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 1(2), 259–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245918770963CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levin, L., & Peled, E. (2011). The Attitudes toward Prostitutes and Prostitution Scale: A new tool for measuring public attitudes toward prostitutes and prostitution. Research on Social Work Practice, 21(5), 582–593. http://doi.org/10.1177/1049731511406451CrossRefGoogle Scholar
López Vázquez, B. (2007). Publicidad emocional. Estrategias creativas [Emotional Advertisement. Creative strategies]. ESIC.Google Scholar
Lüdecke, D., Ben-Shachar, M., Patil, I., & Makowski, D. (2020). Extracting, computing and exploring the parameters of statistical models using R. The Journal of Open Source Software, 5, Article 2445. https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.02445CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ma, Y., Jin, J., Yu, W., Zhang, W., Xu, Z., & Ma, Q. (2018). How is the neural response to the design of experience goods related to personalized preference? An implicit view. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 12, Article 760. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2018.00760CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Machová, R., Huszárik, E. R., & Tóth, Z. (2015). The role of shockvertising in the context of various generations. Problems and Perspectives in Management, 13(1), 104–112.Google Scholar
Mackenzie, S. B., Lutz, R. J., & Belch, G. E. (1986). The role of attitude toward the Ad as a mediator of advertising effectiveness: A test of competing explanations. Journal of Marketing Research, 23(2), 130–143. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151660CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mehta, A. I. (2000). Advertising attitudes and advertising effectiveness. Journal of Advertising Research, 40(3), 67–72. https://doi.org/0.2501/JAR-40-3-67-72CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Menaker, T. A., & Franklin, C. A. (2018). Prostitution myth endorsement: Assessing the effects of sexism, sexual victimization history, pornography, and self-control. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 42(3), 313–325. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684318754790CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meneses, C. (2010). Factores motivacionales en una muestra de hombres españoles que pagan por servicios sexuales [Motivational factors in a sample of Spanish men who pay for sexual services]. Revista de la, Asociación Española de Neuropsiquiatría, 107, 30, 393–407. http://doi.org/10.4321/S0211-57352010000300003Google Scholar
Rubio Guzmán, E. M., Labrador Fernández, J., Huesca González, A. M., & Charro Baena, M. B. (2003). Perfil de la prostitución callejera. Análisis de una muestra de personas atendidas por APRAMP [Profile of street prostitution. Analysis of a sample of people served by APRAMP] (M. d. C. Meneses Falcón, Coord.). Universidad Pontificia Comillas.Google Scholar
Meneses, C., Rua, A., & Uroz, J. (2018). Explorando los motivos para pagar servicios sexuales desde las opiniones sobre la prostitución [Exploring motives to pay for sexual services from opinions about prostitution]. Revista Internacional de Sociología, 76(2), Article e091. https://doi.org/10.3989/ris.2018.76.2.17.47CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Methaq, A. S., & Fahad, A. A. (2016). The effect of attitude toward advertisement on attitude toward brand and purchase intention. International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management, 4(9), 509–520.Google Scholar
Moran, R., & Farley, M. (2019). Consent, coercion, and culpability: Is prostitution stigmatized work or an exploitive and violent practice rooted in sex, race, and class inequality? Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48(7), 1947–1953. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1371-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muralidharan, S., & Sheehan, K. (2018). The role of guilt in influencing sustainable pro-environmental behaviors among shoppers: Differences in response by gender to messaging about England’s plastic-bag levy. Journal of Advertising Research, 58, 349–362. https://doi.org/10.2501/JAR-2017-029CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Keefe, D. J. (2002). Persuasion: Theory and research (2nd Ed.). SAGE Publications.Google Scholar
Papí-Gálvez, N., & Orbea Mira, J. (2011). La eficacia publicitaria de las campañas sobre la igualdad de género: Análisis de la codificación y del plan de medios [The advertising effectiveness of gender equality campaigns: Analysis of the codification and media plan]. Zer. Revista de Estudios de Comunicación, 16(30), 247–266.Google Scholar
Parker, D., Stradling, S. G., & Manstead, A. S. R. (1996). Modifying beliefs and attitudes to exceeding the speed limit: An intervention study based on the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1996.tb01835.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parry, S., Jones, R., Stern, P., & Robinson, M. (2013). ‘Shockvertising’: An exploratory investigation into attitudinal variations and emotional reactions to shock advertising. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 12(2), 112–121. https://doi.org/10.1002/cb.1430CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1981). Attitudes and persuasion: Classic and contemporary approaches. W. C. Brown Co. Publishers.Google Scholar
Palacios Picos, A., Pinedo González, R., & de la Iglesia Gutiérrez, M. (2018). Exploring causes and consequences of sex workers’ psychological health: Implications for health care policy. A study conducted in Spain. Health Care for Women International, 39(8), 844–858. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518789904CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pollay, R. W. (1986). The distorted mirror: Reflections on the unintended consequences of advertising. Journal of Marketing, 50, 18–36. https://doi.org/10.2307/1251597CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rössler, W., Koch, U., Lauber, C., Hass, A.-K., Altwegg, M., Ajdacic-Gross, V., & Landolt, K. (2010). The mental health of female sex workers. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 122(2), 143–152. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01533.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saiz-Echezarreta, V., Alvarado, M.-C., & Gómez-Lorenzini, P. (2018). Incidencia política de las campañas contra la trata: Un relato controvertido [Advocacy of trafficking campaigns: A controversy story]. Comunicar, 55, 29–38. https://doi.org/10.3916/C55-2018-03CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sawyer, S. P., & Metz, M. E. (2008). The Attitudes Toward Prostitution Scale: Preliminary report on its development and use. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 53(3), 334–347. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X08316706CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwarz, N., & Oyserman, D. (2001). Asking questions about behavior: Cognition, communication, and questionnaire construction. The American Journal of Evaluation, 22(2), 127–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/109821400102200202CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schiffman, L. G., & Wisenblit, J. (2015). Consumer behavior (11th Ed.). Pearson.Google Scholar
Silver, K. E., Karakurt, G., & Boysen, S. T. (2015). Predicting prosocial behavior toward sex-trafficked persons: The roles of empathy, belief in a just world, and attitudes toward prostitution. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 24(8), 932–954. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2015.1070231CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singh, J., Crisafulli, B., & Quamina, L. T. (2020). How intensity of cause-related marketing guilt appeals influences consumers. Journal of Advertising Research, 60(2), 148–162. https://doi.org/10.2501/JAR-2018-049CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solana, J. L. (2005). Mujer inmigrante y prostitución: Falencias y realidades. [Immigrant women and prostitution: Failures and realities]. In Checa-Olmos, F. (Ed.), Mujeres en el camino: El fenómeno de la migración femenina en España [Women on the road: The phenomenon of female migration in Spain] (pp. 221–257). Icaria.Google Scholar
Stead, M., Tagg, S., MacKintosh, A. M., & Eadie, D. (2005). Development and evaluation of a mass media theory of planned behavior intervention to reduce speeding. Health Education Research, 20(1), 36–50. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyg093CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Szablewska, N., & Kubacki, K. (2018). Anti-human trafficking campaigns: A systematic literature review. Social Marketing Quarterly, 24(2), 104–122. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524500418771611CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teixeira, A., & Oliveira, A. (2017). Exploratory study on the prevalence of suicidal behavior, mental health, and social support in female street sex workers in Porto, Portugal. Health Care for Women International, 38(2), 159–166, https://doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2016.1192172CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trotter, H. (2011). The virtues of dockside dalliance: Why maritime sugar girls are safer than urban streetwalkers in South Africa’s prostitution industry. In Dewey, S. & Kelly, P. (Eds.), Policing pleasure: Sex work, policy, and the state in global perspective (pp. 86–99). New York University Press. http://doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9780814785089.003.0007Google Scholar
Urwin, B., & Venter, M. (2014). Shock advertising: Not so shocking anymore. An investigation among Generation Y. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(21), 203–214. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n21p203Google Scholar
Vendemia, M. A., DeAndrea, D. C., & Brathwaite, K. N. (2021). Objectifying the body positive movement: The effects of sexualizing and digitally modifying body-positive images on Instagram. Body Image, 38, 137–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2021.03.017CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, C.-Y., & Lin, Y.-E. (2021). The influence of semantic relevance on the discernment of product appearance and function. BMC Psychology, 9(1), Article 133. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-021-00632-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weitzer, R. (2015). Human trafficking and contemporary slavery. Annual Review of Sociology, 41(1), 223–242. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112506CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wells, W. D. (Ed.). (1997). Measuring advertising effectiveness. Psychology Press. http://doi.org/10.4324/9781315806099Google Scholar