Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-lj6df Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-11T05:59:20.909Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Diversity and Power: Selection Method and Its Impacts on State Executive Descriptive Representation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2021

Sarina Rhinehart Open the ORCID record for Sarina Rhinehart [Opens in a new window]  and
Matthew J. Geras
Sarina Rhinehart*
Affiliation:
The University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, USA
Matthew J. Geras
Affiliation:
The University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, USA
*
Sarina Rhinehart, The Carl Albert Congressional Research and Studies Center, The University of Oklahoma, 630 Parrington Oval, Room 101, Norman, OK 73019, USA. Email: rhinehart@ou.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article explores diversity within top leadership positions in state governments, specifically, the role that position selection method plays in promoting the inclusion of racial and ethnic minorities into positions of power. We hypothesize that minorities will be more likely to serve in appointed positions as governors consider diversity in making appointments and less likely to serve in elected positions due to the additional hurdles for candidates of color. Using an original data set of state executive leaders from 2001 to 2017 from all 50 states, we find evidence that institutional design influences levels of diversity among state executive leaders. Racial and ethnic minorities are more likely to be appointed than elected to state executive leadership positions. In addition, we find that Democratic governors are more likely than Republican governors to appoint minorities. Ultimately, this evidence is important for understanding how institutional design can have consequences for descriptive representation, specifically for groups that have been historically excluded from political life.

Keywords

representationrace and politicsstate governmentappointmentselections
Type
Research Article
Information
State Politics & Policy Quarterly , Volume 20 , Issue 2 , June 2020 , pp. 213 - 233
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alexander, Amy C. 2011. “Mayoral Election and the Demand and Supply of Women Mayors.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy 32 (2): 114–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alozie, Nicholas O. 1988. “Black Representation on State Judiciaries.” Social Science Quarterly 69 (4): 979–986.Google Scholar
Berinsky, Adam J., Hutchings, Vincent L., Mendelberg, Tali, Shaker, Lee, and Valentino, Nicholas A.. 2011. “Sex and Race: Are Black Candidates More Likely to Be Disadvantaged by Sex Scandals?” Political Behavior 33 (2): 179–202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berkman, Michael B. 2005. Ten Thousand Democracies: Politics and Public Opinion in America's School Districts. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Bialik, Kristen. 2019. “For the Fifth Time in a Row, the New Congress Is the Most Racially and Ethnically Diverse Ever.”.Google Scholar
Borchardt, Jackie. 2019. “Incoming Ohio Gov. Mike DeWine's Cabinet Could Be Most Diverse in Ohio History.”.Google Scholar
Bradbury, Mark D., and Kellough, J. Edward. 2007. “Representative Bureaucracy: Exploring the Potential for Active Representation in Local Government.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 18 (4): 697–714.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Branton, Regina P. 2009. “The Importance of Race and Ethnicity in Congressional Primary Elections.” Political Research Quarterly 62 (3): 459–473.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bratton, Kathleen A., and Spill, Rorie L.. 2002. “Existing Diversity and Judicial Selection: The Role of the Appointment Method in Establishing Gender Diversity in State Supreme Courts.” Social Science Quarterly 83 (2): 504–518.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broockman, David E. 2013. “Black Politicians Are More Intrinsically Motivated to Advance Blacks' Interests: A field Experiment Manipulating Political Incentives.” American Journal of Political Science 57 (3): 521–536.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Nadia E. 2014. Sisters in the Statehouse: Black Women and Legislative Decision Making. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bullock, Charles S. III and Dunn, Richard E.. 1999. “The Demise of Racial Districting and the Future of Black Representation.” Emory Law Journal 48:1209.Google Scholar
Bullock, Charles S. III and Rozell, Mark J.. 2017. The New Politics of the Old South: An Introduction to Southern Politics. Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Butler, Daniel M., and Broockman, David E.. 2011. “Do Politicians Racially Discriminate against Constituents? A field Experiment on State Legislators.” American Journal of Political Science 55 (3): 463–477.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carmines, Edward G., and Stimson, James A. 1989. Issue Evolution: Race and the Transformation of American Politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Carroll, Susan J., and Sanbonmatsu, Kira. 2013. More Women Can Run: Gender and Pathways to the State Legislatures. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casellas, Jason P. 2009. “Coalitions in the House? The Election of Minorities to State Legislatures and Congress.” Political Research Quarterly 62 (1): 120–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chin, Jean Lau. 2010. “Introduction to the Special Issue on Diversity and Leadership.” American Psychologist 65 (3): 150–156.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, Rachel, Rundlett, Madeline, and Wellemeyer, James. 2019. “116th Congress Breaks Records for Women, Minority Lawmakers.” The Hill, January 9..Google Scholar
Collins, Josh. 2018. “Minnesota's Graduation Rate Hits New High, Gaps Closing over Time.”.Google Scholar
Crowder-Meyer, Melody, and Cooperman, Rosalyn. 2018. “Can't Buy Them Love: How Party Culture among Donors Contributes to the Party Gap in Women's Representation.” The Journal of Politics 80 (4): 1211–1224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davidson, Chandler, and Korbel, George. 1981. “At-large Elections and Minority-Group Representation: A Re-examination of Historical and Contemporary Evidence.” The Journal of Politics 43 (4): 982–1005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawson, Michael C. 1995. Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African-American Politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elazar, Daniel J. 1994. The American Mosaic: The Impact of Space, Time, and Culture on American Politics. Westview Press.Google Scholar
Esterling, Kevin M., and Andersen, Seth S.. 1999. “Diversity and the Judicial Merit Selection Process: A Statistical Report.” Research on Judicial Selection 2:2–39.Google Scholar
Fox, Richard L., and Lawless, Jennifer L.. 2004. “Entering the Arena? Gender and the Decision to Run for Office.” American Journal of Political Science 48 (2): 264–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, Richard L., and Lawless, Jennifer L.. 2005. “To Run or Not to Run for Office: Explaining Nascent Political Ambition.” American Journal of Political Science 49 (3): 642–659.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, Richard L., and Oxley, Zoe M.. 2003. “Gender Stereotyping in State Executive Elections: Candidate Selection and Success.” The Journal of Politics 65 (3): 833–850.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frederick, Kristofer A., and Jeffries, Judson L.. 2009. “A study in African American candidates for high-profile statewide office.” Journal of Black Studies 39 (5):689–718.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gay, Claudine. 2001. “The Effect of Black Congressional Representation on Political Participation.” American Political Science Review 95 (3): 589–602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goelzhauser, Greg. 2011. “Diversifying State Supreme Courts.” Law & Society Review 45 (3): 761–781.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, Barbara Luck. 1990. “Do Judicial Selection Systems Matter? A Study of Black Representation on State Courts.” American Politics Quarterly 18 (3): 316–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffin, John D., and Keane, Michael. 2006. “Descriptive Representation and the Composition of African American Turnout.” American Journal of Political Science 50 (4): 998–1012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grofman, Bernard, and Handley, Lisa. 1989. “Black Representation: Making Sense of Electoral Geography at Different Levels of Government.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 14 (2): 26579.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grose, Christian R. 2011. Congress in Black and White: Race and Representation in Washington and at Home. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hajnal, Zoltan L. 2006. Changing White Attitudes toward Black Political Leadership. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hennings, Valerie M., and Urbatsch, R.. 2016. “Gender, Partisanship, and Candidate-Selection Mechanisms.” State Politics & Policy Quarterly 16 (3): 290–312.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holman, Mirya R., and Schneider, Monica C.. 2018. “Gender, Race, and Political Ambition: How Intersectionality and Frames Influence Interest in Political Office.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 6 (2): 264–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holmes, Lisa M., and Emrey, Jolly A.. 2006. “Court Diversification: Staffing the State Courts of Last Resort through Interim Appointments.” Justice System Journal 27 (1): 1–13.Google Scholar
Imai, Kosuke, and Khanna, Kabir. 2016. “Improving Ecological Inference by Predicting Individual Ethnicity from Voter Registration Records.” Political Analysis 24 (2): 263–272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jeffries, Judson L. 1999. “U.S. Senator Edward W. Brooke and Governor L. Douglas Wilder Tell Political Scientists How Blacks Can Win High-Profile Statewide Office.” PS: Political Science & Politics 32 (3): 583–588.Google Scholar
Jeffries, Judson L., and Wavro, Matthew A.. 2011. “Can African Americans Win High-Profile Statewide Offices in the South? A Study in Southern Inhospitality.” Journal of African American Studies 15 (4): 415–432.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, Gbemende, Oppenheimer, Bruce I., and Selin, Jennifer L. 2012. “The House as a Stepping Stone to the Senate: Why Do so Few African American House Members Run?” American Journal of Political Science 56 (2): 387–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahn, Kim Fridkin. 1995. “Characteristics of Press Coverage in Senate and Gubernatorial Elections: Information Available to Voters.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 20 (1): 23–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karnig, Albert K., and Welch, Susan. 1982. “Electoral Structure and Black Representation on City Councils.” Social Science Quarterly 63 (1): 99.Google Scholar
Kaulessar, Ricardo. 2019. “NJ Attorney General Announces New Standards for Dealing with Bias Incidents.”.Google Scholar
Keating, Christopher. 2018. “CT Treasurer Denise Nappier Will Not Run Again after 20 Years; Candidates Lining Up.”.Google Scholar
King, Kate. 2017. “N.J. Gov.-Elect Murphy's Cabinet Picks Signal Diversity Push.”.Google Scholar
Krause, George A., Lewis, David E., and Douglas, James W.. 2006. “Political Appointments, Civil Service Systems, and Bureaucratic Competence: Organizational Balancing and Executive Branch Revenue Forecasts in the American States.” American Journal of Political Science 50 (3): 770–787.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawless, Jennifer L., and Fox, Richard L.. 2010. It Still Takes a Candidate: Why Women Don't Run for Office. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, Traci G. 2016. “Report: Only 14 Percent of State Legislators Identify as Minorities.” NBC News, January 26..Google Scholar
Lewis, David E. 2007. “Testing Pendleton's Premise: Do Political Appointees Make Worse Bureaucrats?” The Journal of Politics 69 (4): 1073–1088.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, David E. 2012. “The Contemporary Presidency: The Personnel Process in the Modern Presidency.” Presidential Studies Quarterly 42 (3): 577–596.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mansbridge, Jane. 1999. “Should Blacks Represent Blacks and Women Represent Women? A Contingent ‘Yes.‘” The Journal of Politics 61 (3): 628–657.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marschall, Melissa J., Ruhil, Anirudh V. S., and Shah, Paru R.. 2010. “The New Racial Calculus: Electoral Institutions and Black Representation in Local Legislatures.” American Journal of Political Science 54 (1): 107–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, Elaine, and Pyle, Barry. 2002. “Gender and Racial Diversification of State Supreme Courts.” Women & Politics 24 (2): 35–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDermott, Monika L. 1998. “Race and Gender Cues in Low-Information Elections.” Political Research Quarterly 51 (4): 895–918.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, Susan M. 2012. “Administering Representation: The Role of Elected Administrators in Translating Citizens' Preferences into Public Policy.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 23 (4): 865–897.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NAACP Florida State Conference. 2018. “NAACP Demands JNC to Reconvene and Reconsider Black Applicants and Calls on Governor Elect DeSantis to Publicly Demand a New Slate of Candidates Reflecting the Diversity of Florida.”.Google Scholar
New Jersey Latino Task Force. 2017. “New Jersey Latino Task Force Applauds Governor-Elect Phil Murphy for Nomination of Top Latinos to Cabinet.”.Google Scholar
Olson, Elizabeth. 2019. “Slow Gains for Women and Minorities on Boards of Big U.S. Firms, Study Says.” The New York Times, January 15..Google Scholar
Patterson, Bradley H., and Pfiffner, James P.. 2001. “The White House Office of Presidential Personnel.” Presidential Studies Quarterly 31 (3): 415–438.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Philpot, Tasha S., and Jr, Hanes Walton. 2007. “One of Our Own: Black Female Candidates and the Voters Who Support Them.” American Journal of Political Science 51 (1): 49–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pickerill, J. Mitchell, and Bowling, Cynthia J.. 2014. “Polarized Parties, Politics, and Policies: Fragmented Federalism in 2013-2014.” Publius: The Journal of Federalism 44 (3): 369–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pitkin, Hanna Fenichel. 1967. The Concept of Representation. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reeves, Keith. 1997. Voting Hopes or Fears? White Voters, Black Candidates & Racial Politics in America. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sanbonmatsu, Kira. 2015. “Electing Women of Color: The Role of Campaign Trainings.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy 36 (2): 137–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Selden, Sally Coleman. 1997. The Promise of Representative Bureaucracy: Diversity and Responsiveness in a Government Agency. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe.Google Scholar
Setzler, Mark, and Yanus, Alixandra B.. 2018. “Why Did Women Vote for Donald Trump?” PS: Political Science & Politics 51 (3): 523–527.Google Scholar
Shah, Paru. 2015. “Stepping Up: Black Political Ambition and Success.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 3 (2): 278–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shah, Paru, Scott, Jamil, and Juenke, Eric Gonzalez. 2019. “Women of Color Candidates: Examining Emergence and Success in State Legislative Elections.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 7 (2): 429–443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sides, John, Tesler, Michael, and Vavreck, Lynn. 2018. Identity Crisis: The 2016 Presidential Campaign and the Battle for the Meaning of America. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sigelman, Carol K., Sigelman, Lee, Walkosz, Barbara J., and Nitz, Michael. 1995. “Black Candidates, White Voters: Understanding Racial Bias in Political Perceptions.” American Journal of Political Science 39 (1): 243–265.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sigelman, Lee, and Welch, Susan. 1984. “Race, Gender, and Opinion toward Black and Female Presidential Candidates.” Public Opinion Quarterly 48 (2): 467–475.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sonenshein, Raphael J. 1990. “Can Black Candidates win Statewide Elections?” Political Science Quarterly 105 (2): 219–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, Grace. 2018. “There Has Been Very, Very Little Diversity among US Governors.” CNN, May 23..Google Scholar
Sullivan, S. P. 2018. “Who Is Gurbir Grewal? Jersey's Sikh AG Has Stared down Racial Slurs Long before Radio Hosts' Insults.”.Google Scholar
Taebel, Delbert. 1978. “Minority Representation on City Councils: The Impact of Structure on Blacks and Hispanics.” Social Science Quarterly 59 (1): 142–152.Google Scholar
Tate, Katherine. 2001. “The Political Representation of Blacks in Congress: Does Race Matter?” Legislative Studies Quarterly 26 (4): 623–638.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Terkildsen, Nayda. 1993. “When White Voters Evaluate Black Candidates: The Processing Implications of Candidate Skin Color, Prejudice, and Self-monitoring.” American Journal of Political Science 37 (4): 1032–1053.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Theriault, Sean M. 2008. Party Polarization in Congress. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomsen, Danielle M., and Swers, Michele L.. 2017. “Which Women Can Run? Gender, Partisanship, and Candidate Donor Networks.” Political Research Quarterly 70 (2): 449–463.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
The Free Press, Mankato, Minn. 2018. “Other View: Achievement Gap De-emphasized by New School Ratings.” Duluth News Tribune, September 23..Google Scholar
Tokeshi, Matthew. Forthcoming. “Why Are African American Governors and US Senators so Rare? Exploring White Voters' Responses to African American Statewide Candidates.” Political Behavior.Google Scholar
Tooten, Tim. 2017. “Groups Criticize Governor over Lack of Diversity on Appointed Boards.”.Google Scholar
Visalvanich, Neil. 2017. “When Does Race Matter? Exploring White Responses to Minority Congressional Candidates.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 5 (4): 618–641.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weber, Tom. 2011. “New Education Commissioner Vows to Take on Achievement Gap.” MPR News, January 14..Google Scholar
Weko, Thomas J. 1995. The Politicizing Presidency: The White House Personnel Office, 19481994. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.Google Scholar
Welch, Susan. 1990. “The Impact of At-large Elections on the Representation of Blacks and Hispanics.” The Journal of Politics 52 (4): 1050–1076.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitby, Kenny J., and Krause, George A.. 2001. “Race, Issue Heterogeneity and Public Policy: The Republican Revolution in the 104th US Congress and the Representation of African-American Policy Interests.” British Journal of Political Science 31 (3): 555–572.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, Linda F. 1990. “White/Black Perceptions of the Electability of Black Political Candidates.” National Political Science Review 2 (1): 45–64.Google Scholar
Woodson, Benjamin. 2017. “The Two Opposing Effects of Judicial Elections on Legitimacy Perceptions.” State Politics & Policy Quarterly 17 (1): 24–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zingher, Joshua N. 2014. “An Analysis of the Changing Social Bases of America's Political Parties: 1952-2008.” Electoral Studies 35:272–282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Rhinehart and Geras supplementary material

Appendix

Download Rhinehart and Geras supplementary material(File)
File 22.1 KB