Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T19:14:11.434Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Prevention and control of mycotoxins in the poultry production chain: a European view

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2007

S. Dänicke
S. Dänicke
Affiliation:
Federal Agricultural Research Centre, Braunschweig (FAL), Institute of Animal Nutrition, Bundesallee 50, D-38116 Braunschweig, Germany, e-mail: sven.daenicke@fal.de
Get access

Abstract

Prevention and control of mycotoxins in the poultry production chain requires the knowledge and consideration of all factors influencing mycotoxin formation in the field and during the storage of feedstuffs. Mycotoxin effects on health and performance of poultry and the ‘carry over’ of mycotoxins or their metabolites into foodstuffs of animal origin are also essential information elements.

Among a number of known my cotoxins, the Fusarium-mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZON) are of special importance under European production conditions because of their high frequency and concentrations. Several plant production strategies might help to minimize the risk of formation of these mycotoxins. However, higher mean values are unavoidable under unfavourable weather conditions. Therefore, special care must be taken in so-called ‘Fusurium-years’, because poultry is regarded as less sensitive to these mycotoxins than pigs and suspect cereal batches will be diverted to poultry feeding.

Higher dietary DON-concentrations adversely affect the performance and immune response of poultry at dietary concentrations of greater than 5 mg per kg diet. In contrast, zearalenone, which often co-occurs with DON, does not cause deleterious effects in poultry even in ‘Fusurium-years’ when higher concentrations are measured. ‘Carry over’ of both toxins into poultry products is very low and is negligible when the DON-concentration of the diet is restricted to this 5 mg per kg.

The levels of further Fusurium mycotoxins such as T-2 toxin, fumonisins, moniliformin or beauvericin to be expected in Europe are too low to cause toxic effects in poultry. However, several combinations of co-occurring mycotoxins might influence the total toxic potential of a contaminated feedstuff.

Several feed-processing procedures are suitable for reducing the DON-content of contaminated feedstuffs, but they are expensive or have been only lab-tested. Adsorbing agents were shown to either only weakly bind DON, or not to bind it at all in vitro, and to be ineffective in vivo. More recent efforts have been directed at employing the capability of several micro-organisms (bacteria and yeasts) to degrade DON for detoxification in situ.

Keywords

mycotoxinpoultryprevention
Type
Reviews
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 58 , Issue 4 , December 2002 , pp. 451 - 474
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2002

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ademoyero, A.A. and Hamilton, P.B. (1991a) Mouth lesions in broiler chickens caused by scirpenol mycotoxins. Poultry Science 70: 2082–2089.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ademoyero, A.A. and Hamilton, P.B. (1991b) High dietary fat increases toxicity of diacetoxyscirpenol in chickens. Poultry Science 70: 2271–2274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ademoyero, A.A., Hamilton, P.B. and Cullen, J.M. (1991) Scirpentriol toxicity in young broiler chickens. Poultry Science 70: 2090–2093.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, N.K., Burmeister, H.R., Weaver, G.A. and Mirocha, C.J. (1981c) Toxicity of dietary and intravenously administered moniliformin to broiler chickens. Poultry Science 60: 1415–1417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, N.K., Mirocha, C.J., Aakhus-Allen, S., Bitgood, J.J., Weaver, G. and Bates, F. (1981a) Effect of dietary zearalenone on reproduction of chickens. Poultry Science 60: 1165–1174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, N.K., Mirocha, C.J., Weaver, G., Aakhus-Allen, S. and Bates, F. (1981b) Effect of dietary zearalenone on finishing broiler chickens and young turkey poults. Poultry Science 60: 124–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bacon, C.W. and Marks, H.L. (1976) Growth of broilers and quail fed Fusarium (Giberella zeae)-infected corn and zearalenone. Poultry Science 55: 1531–1535.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauer, J. and Binder, S. (1993) Fumonisine in Futtermitteln: Vorkommen und Bedeutung einer neuen Gruppe von Fusarientoxinen. Tierärztliche Umschau 48: 718–727.Google Scholar
Bauer, J. (1994) Möglichkeiten zur Entgiftung mykotoxinhaltiger Futtermittel. Monatshefte Veterinärmedizin 49: 175–181.Google Scholar
Bermudez, A.J., Ledoux, D.R., Rottinghaus, G.E. and Bennett, G.A. (1997a) The individual and combined effects of the Fusarium mycotoxins moniliformin and fumonisin B1 in turkeys. Avian Diseases 41: 304–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bermudez, A.J., Ledoux, D.R., Rottinghaus, G.E., Stogsdill, P.L. and Bennett, G.A. (1997b) Effects of feeding Fusarium fujikuroi culture material containing known levels of moniliformin in turkey poults. Journal of Organic Chemistry 26: 565–577.Google ScholarPubMed
Bilgrami, K.S. and Choudhary, A.K. (1998) Mycotoxins in preharvest contamination of agricultural crops. In: Mycotoxins in agriculture and food safety. Ed. by Sinha, K.K. & Bhatnagar, D., Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York-Basel-Hong Kong, 1–43.Google Scholar
Blank, R., Höhler, D. and Wolffram, S. (1999) Ochratoxin in der Nahrungskette – Vorkommen, Toxizität und Dekontamination. Ümbersichten Tierernährung 27: 123–163.Google Scholar
Böhm, J. (1992) Über die Bedeutung der Mykotoxine Desoxynivalenol, Zearalenon und Ochratoxin A für landwirtschaftliche Nutztiere. Archives of Animal Nutrition 42: 95–111.Google Scholar
Boonchuvit, B., Hamilton, P.B. and Burmeister, H.R. (1975) Interaction of T-2 toxin with salmonella infections of chickens. Poultry Science 54: 1693–1696.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burmeister, H.R., Ciegler, A. and Vesonder, R.F. (1979) Monoliformin, a metabolite of Fusarium moniliforme 1 6322: Purification and toxicity. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 37: 11–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Celik, I., Oguz, H., Demet, Ö, Dönmez, H.H., Boydak, M. and Sur, E. (2000) Efficacy of polyvinylpolypyrrolidone in reducing the immunotoxicity of atlatoxin in growing broilers. British Poultry Science 41: 430–439.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charmley, L.L. and Prelusky, D.B. (1994) Decontamination of Fusarium mycotoxins. In: Mycotoxins in grain compounds other than aflatoxins. Ed. by Miller, J.D. and Trenholm, H.L., St. Paul Eagan Press. 421–435.Google Scholar
Chelkowski, J. (1998) Distribution of Fusarium species and their mycotoxins in cereal grains. In: Mycotoxins in agriculture and food safety. Ed. by Sinha, K.K. & Bhatnagar, D., Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York–Basel-Hong Kong, 45–64.Google Scholar
Chi, M.S., Mirocha, C.J., Kurtz, H.J., Weaver, G., Bates, F. and Shimoda, W. (1977b) Subacute toxicity of T-2 toxin in broiler chicks. Poultry Science 56: 306–313.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chi, M.S., Mirocha, C.J., Kurtz, H.J., Weaver, G., Bates, F. and Shimoda, W. (1977c) Effects of T-2 toxin on reproductive performance and health of laying hens. Poultry Science 56: 628–637.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chi, M.S., Mirocha, C.J., Kurtz, H.J., Weaver, G., Bates, F., Shimoda, W. and Burmeister, H.R. (1977a) Acute toxicity of T-2 toxin in broiler chickens and laying hens. Poultry Science 56: 103–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chi, M.S., Robison, T.S., Mirocha, C.J. and Reddy, K.R. (1978): Acute toxicity of 12,13-epoxytrichothecenes in one-day-old broiler chicks. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 35: 636–640.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chi, M.S., Mirocha, C.J., Kurtz, H.J., Weaver, G.A., Bates, F., Robison, T. and Shimoda, W. (1980b) Effect of dietary zearalenone on growing broiler chicks. Poultry Science 59: 531–536.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chi, M.S., Mirocha, G.J., Weaver, G.A. and Kurtz, H.J. (1980a) Effect of zearalenone on female white leghorn chickens. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 39: 1026–1030.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corrier, D.E. (1991) Mycotoxicosis: mechanisms of immunosuppression. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 30: 73–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curtui, V.G. (2000) Effects of feeding a Fusarium poae extract and a natural zeolite to broiler chickens. Mycotoxin Research 16: 43–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dänicke, S., Gareis, M. and Bauer, J. (2001b) Orientation values for critical concentrations of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in diets for pigs, ruminants and gallinaceous poultry. Proceedings of Society of Nutrition and Physiology 10: 171–174.Google Scholar
Dänicke, S., Halle, I., Matthes, S., Ueberschär, K.-H., Valenta, H. and Flachowsky, G. (2001c) Effects of graded levels of Fusarium-toxin-contaminated wheat and of a detoxifying agent in broiler diets on performance, nutrient digestibility and blood chemical parameters. Submitted.Google Scholar
Dänicke, S., Ueberschär, K.-H., Halle, I., Matthes, S., Valenta, H. and Flachowsky, G. (2001a) Effect of addition of a detoxifying agent to laying hen diets containing either non-contaminated or Fusarium toxin contaminated maize on performance of hens and on carry-over of zearalenone. Submitted.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dänicke, S., Valenta, H. and Ueberschär, K.-H. (2000) Risikoabschätzung und Vermeidungsstrategien bei der Futterung. In: Risikofaktoren fur die Fusariumtoxinbildung und Vermeidungsstrategien bei der Futtermittelerzeugung und Fütterung. Landbauforschung Völkenrode, Sonderheft Nr. 216, Hrsg, S., Dänicke, S und Oldenburg, E., 35–138.Google Scholar
Dailey, R.E., Reese, R.E. and Brouwer, E.A. (1980) Metabolism of (14C) zearalenone in laying hens. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 28: 286–291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Devegowda, G., Raju, M.V.L.N., Afzali, N. and Swamy, H.V.L.N. (1998) Mycotoxin picture worlwide: novel solutions for their counteraction. Proc. of Alltech's 14th Annual Symp. on Biotechnology in the Feed Industry (Ed. Lyons, T.P. & Jcques, K.A.) Nottingham University Press, 241–255.Google Scholar
Döll, S., Dänicke, S., Valenta, H. and Flachowsky, G. (2001) In vitro studies on the evaluation of mycotoxin decontaminating agents. Mycotoxin Research 17A: in press.Google Scholar
Döll, S., Valenta, H., Kirchheim, U., Dänicke, S. and Flachowsky, G. (2000) Fusarium mycotoxins in conventionally and organically grown grain from Thuringia/Germany. Mycotoxin Research 16A/1: 38–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doerr, J.A., Hamilton, P.B. and Burmeister, H.R. (1981) T-2 toxicosis and blood coagulation in young chickens. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 60: 157–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doerr, J.A., Huff, W.E., Tung, H.T., Wyatt, R.D. and Hamilton, P.B. (1974) A survey of T-2 toxin, ochratoxin, and aflatoxin for their effects on the coagulation of blood in young broiler chickens. Poultry Science 53: 1728–1734.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dowd, P.F. (1998) Involvement of arthropods in the establishment of mycotoxigenic fungi under field conditions. In: Mycotoxins in agriculture and food safety. Ed. by Sinha, K.K. & Bhatnagar, D., Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York-Basel-Hong Kong, 307–350.Google Scholar
Dowd, P.F. (2000) Indirect reduction of ear molds and associated mycotoxins in bacillus thuringiensis corn under controlled and open field conditions: utility and limitations. J. Econ. Entomol. 93: 1669–1679.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
EL-Banna, A.A., Hamilton, R.M.G., Scott, P.M. and Trenholm, H.L. (1983) Nontransmission of Deoxynivalenol (Vomitoxin) to Eggs and Meat in Chickens Fed Deoxynivalenol-Contaminated Diets. Journal ofAgriculture and Food Chemistry 31: 1381–1384.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellner, F. (1999): 1998 – Ein Jahr für Fusariumtoxine. Proceedings 21. Mykotoxin-Workshop am 7.-9. Juni 1999 in Jena, 1–4.Google Scholar
Feinberg, B. and McLaughlin, C.S. (1989) Biochemical mechanism of action of trichothecene mycotoxins. In: Trichothecene mycotoxicosis: Pathophysiological effects. Volume 1. Ed. Beasley, V.R., CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, Florida, 27–35.Google Scholar
Farnworth, E.R., Hamilton, R.M.G., Thompson, B.K. and Trenholm, H.L. (1983) Liver lipid levels in white leghorn hens fed diets that contained wheat contaminated by deoxynivalenol (vomitoxin). Poultry Science 62: 832–836.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fink-Gremmels, J. (1989) Bedeutung der Mykotoxinaufnahme für das Schlachttier. Deutsche tierärztliche Wochenschrift 96: 360–363.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, D.W., Picken, C.A., Murphy, L.C. and Buhr, M.M. (1989) Measurement of the relative binding affinity of zearalenone, alpha-zearalenol and β-zearalenol for uterine and oviduct oestrogen receptors in swine, rats and chickens: an indicator of oestrogenic potencies. Comperative Biochemistry and Physiology 94c: 691–694.Google Scholar
Fuchs, E., Binder, E.M., Heidler, D. and Krska, R. (2000) Characterization of metabolites after the microbial degradation of a-and b-trichothecenes by bbdh 797. Mycotoxin Research 16A/1: 66–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galtier, P. (1998) Biological fate of mycotoxins in animals. Revue Med. Vet 149: 549–554.Google Scholar
Galtier, P., Alvinerie, M. and Charpenteau, J.L. (1981) The pharmacokinetic profile of ochratoxin A in pigs, rabbits and chickens. Food Chemistry and Toxicology 18: 493–496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gareis, M., Bauer, J., Enders, C. and Gedek, B. (1989) Contamination of cereals and feed with Fusarium mycotoxins in European countries. In: Mycotoxins, taxonomy and pathogenicity. Ed: Chelkowski, J., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 441–472.Google Scholar
Gedek, B. (2001) Erhöhter Mykotoxinbelastung mit Hefen begegnen. Kraftfutrer/Feed Magazine 4/01: 158–162.Google Scholar
Hagelberg, S., Hult, K. and Fuchs, R. (1989) Toxicokinetics of ochratoxin A in several species and its plasma-binding properties. Journal of Applied Toxicology 2: 91–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, R.M.G., Thompson, B.K. and Trenholm, H.L. (1981) The effect of vomitoxin contaminated wheat on the palatability of laying diets by white leghorn hens. Poultry Science 60: 1665–1666.Google Scholar
Harvey, R.B., Kubena, L.B., Rottinghaus, G.E., Turk, J.R., Casper, H.H. and Buckley, S.A. (1997) Moniliformin from Fusarium fujikuroi culture material and deoxynivalenol from naturally contaminated wheat incorporated into diets of broiler chicks. Avian Diseases 41: 957–963.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harvey, R.B., Kubena, L.F., Huff, W.E., Elissalde, M.H. and Phillips, T.D. (1991) Hematologic and immunologic toxicity of deoxynivalenol (don)-contaminated diets to growing chickens. Bulliton of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 46: 410–416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hedman, R., Pettersson, H., Engström, B., Elwinger, K. and Fossum, O. (1995) Effects of feeding nivalenol-contaminated diets to male broiler chickens. Poultry Science 74: 620–625.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henry, M.H., Wyatt, R.D. and Fletcher, O.J. (2000) The toxicity of purified fumonisin b1 in broiler chicks. Poultry Science 79: 1378–1384.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoehler, D. and Marquardt, R.R. (1996) Influence of vitamins E and C on the toxic effects of ochratoxin A and T-2 toxin in chicks. Poultry Science 75: 1508–1515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoerr, F.J. (1990) Mycotoxicoses. In: Diseases of Poultry. Ed. Calnek, B.W., Barnes, H.J., Beard, C.W., Reid, W.M.Ames Iowa: USA: Iowa State University Press, 884–915.Google Scholar
Huff, W.E., Doerr, J.A., Hamilton, P.B. and Vesonder, R.F. (1981) Acute toxicity of vomitoxin (deoxynivalenol) in broiler chickens. Poultry Science 60: 1412–1414.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jayaprakash, M., Sreenivas Gowda, R.N., Vijayasarathi, S.K. and Seshadri, S.J. (1992) Absorbent efficacy of hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate in induced aflatoxicosis in broilers. Indian Journal of Veterinary Pathology 16: 102–105.Google Scholar
Jindal, N., Mahipal, S.K. and Rottinghaus, G.E. (1999) Occurrence of fumonisin B1 in maize and poultry feeds in Haryana, India. Mycopathologia 148: 37–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kan, C.A. (1994) Factors affecting absorption of harmful substances from the digestive tract of poultry and their level in poultry products. World's Poultry Science 50: 39–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karlovsky, P. (1999) Biological detoxification of fungal toxins and its use in plant breeding, feed and food production. Natural Toxins 7: 1–23.3.0.CO;2-9>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kececi, T., Oguz, H., Kurtoglu, V. and Demet, O. (1998) Effects of polyvinylpolypyrrolidone, synthetic zeolite and bentonite on serum biochemical and haematological characters of broiler chickens duding aflatoxicosis. British Poultry Science 39: 452–458.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kiran, M.M., Demet, O., Ortatatli, M. and Oguz, H. (1998) The preventive effect of polyvinylpolypyrrolidone on aflatoxicosis in broilers. Avian Pathology 27: 250–255.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kubena, L.F., Bailey, R.H., Byrd, J.A., Young, C.R., Corrier, D.E., Stanker, L.H. and Rottinghaus, G.E. (2001) Cecal volatile fatty acids and broiler chick susceptibility to Salmonella typhimurium colonization as affected by aflatoxins and T-2 toxin. Poultry Science 80: 411–417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kubena, L.F., Edrington, T.S., Harvey, R.B., Buckley, S.A., Phillps, T.D., Rottinghaus, G.E. and Casper, H.H. (1997a) Individual and combined effects of fumonisin B present in Fusarium moniliforme culture material and T-2 toxin or deoxynivalenol in broiler chicks. Poultry Science 76: 1239–1247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kubena, L.F., Edrington, T.S., Harvey, R.B., Phillips, T.D., Sarr, A.B. and Rottinghaus, G.E. (1997b) Individual and combined effects of fumonisin B1 present in Fusarium moniliforme culture material and diacetoxyscirpenol or ochratoxin A in turkey poults. Poulrry Science 76: 256–264.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kubena, L.F., Harvey, R.B. and Edrington, T.S. (1994) Influence of ochratoxin a and diacetoxyscirpenol singly and in combination on broiler chickens. Poultry Science 73: 408–415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kubena, L.F., Harvey, R.B., Buckley, S.A., Bailey, R.H. and Rottinghaus, G.E. (1999) Effects of long-term feeding of diets containing moniliformin, supplied by Fusarium fujikuroi culture material, and fumonisin, supplied by Fusarium moniliforme culture material, to laying hens. Poultry Science 78: 1499–1505.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kubena, L.F., Harvey, R.B., Corrier, D.E., Huff, W.E. and Phillips, T.D. (1987) Effects of feeding deoxynivalenol(DON, vomitoxin)-contaminated wheat to female white leghorn chickens from day old through egg production. Poultry Science 66: 1612–1618.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kubena, L.F., Harvey, R.B., Phillips, T.D. and Clement, B.A. (1993) Effect of hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate on aflatoxicosis in broiler chicks. Poultry Science 72: 651–657.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kubena, L.F., Harvey, R.B., Phillips, T.D., Corrier, D.E. and Huff, W.E. (1990) Diminution of aflatoxicosis in growing chickens by the dietary addition of a hydrated, sodium aluminosilicate. Poultry Science 69: 727–735.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kubena, L.F., Huff, W.E., Harvey, R.B. and Corrier, D.E. (1988) Influence of ochratoxin a and deoxynivalenol on growing broiler chicks. Poultry Science 67: 253–260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kubena, L.F., Huff, W.E., Harvey, R.B., Phillips, T.D. and Rottinghaus, G.E. (1989) Individual and combined toxicity of deoxynivalenol and T-2 toxin in broiler chicks. Poultry Science 68: 622–626.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kubena, L.F., Huff, W.E., Harvey, R.B., Yersin, A.G., Elissalde, M.H., Witzel, D.A., Giroir, L.E., Phillips, T.D. and Peterson, H.D. (1991) Effects of a hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate on growing turkey poults during aflatoxicosis. Poultry Science 70: 1823–1830.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kubena, L.F., Swanson, S.P., Harvey, R.B., Fletcher, O.J., Rowe, L.D. and Phillips, T.D. (1985) Effects of feeding deoxynivalenol (vomitoxin)-contaminated wheat to growing chicks. Poultry Science 64: 1649–1655.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Langseth, W. and Rundberget, T. (1999) The occurrence of HT-2 toxin and other trichothecenes in Norwegian cereals. Mycopathologia 147: 157–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leeson, S., Diaz, G. and Summers, J.D. (1995) Poultry metabolic disorders and mycotoxins. University books, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.Google Scholar
Leitgeb, R., Lew, H., Khidr, R., Böhm, J., Zollitsch, W. and Wagner, E. (2000) Influence of Fusarium toxins on growth and carcass characteristics of turkeys. Die Bodenkultur 51: 171–178.Google Scholar
Li, Y.C., Ledoux, D.R., Bermudez, A.J., Fritsche, K.L. and Rottinghaus, G.E. (1999) Effects of fumonisin B1 on selected immune responses in broiler chicks. Poultry Science 78: 1275–1282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, Y.C., ledoux, D.R., Bermudez, A.J., Fritsche, K.L. and Rottinghaus, G.E. (2000) Effectsof moniliformin on performance and immune function of broiler chicks. Poultry Science 79: 26–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marquardt, R.R. and Frohlich, A.A. (1992) A review of recent advances in understanding ochratoxicosis. Journal of Animal Science 70: 3968–3988.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maryamma, K.I., Manomohan, C.B., Nair, M.G., Ismail, P.K., Sreekumaran, T. and Rajan, A. (1992) Pathology of zearalenone toxicosis in chicken and evaluation of zearalenone residues in tissues. Indian Journal of Animal Science 62: 105–107.Google Scholar
Meier, A., Birzele, B., Oerke, E.-C. and Dehne, H.-W. (2000) Impact of growth conditions on the occurrence of Fusarium spp. and the mycotoxin content of wheat. Mycotoxin Research 16A/1: 12–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meister, U., Symmank, H. and Dahlke, H. (1996) Untersuchung und Bewertung der Fumonisinkontamination von einheimischem und importiertem Getreide. Zeitschrift für Lebensmitteluntersuchung und Forschung 203: 528–533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mirocha, C.J., Robison, T.S., Pawlosky, R.J. and Allen, N.K. (1982) Distribution and residue determination of (3H)zearalenone in broilers. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 66: 77–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moran, E.T., Hunter, B., Perket, P., Young, L.G. and McGirr, L.G. (1982) High tolerance of broilers to vomitoxin from corn infected with Fusariurn graminearum. Poultry Science 61: 1828–1831.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, C.M., Ledoux, D.R., Li, Y.C., Bermudez, A.J. and Rottinghaus, G.E. (1999) The individual and combined effects of feeding moniliformin, supplied by Fusarium fujikuroi culture material, and deoxynivalenol in young turkey poults. Poultry Science 78: 1110–1115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moy, G.G. (1998) Roles of national governments and international agencies in the risk analysis of mycotoxins. In: Mycotoxins in agriculture and food safety. Ed. by Sinha, K.K. & Bhatnagar, D., Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York-Basel-Hong Kong, 483–496.Google Scholar
Müller, H.-M., Reimann, J., Schumacher, U. and Schwadorf, K. (1997a) Fusarium Toxins in Wheat Harvested During Six Years in an Area of Southwest Germany. Natural Toxins 5: 24–30.3.0.CO;2-#>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Müller, H.-M., Reimann, J., Schumacher, U. and Schwadorf, K. (1997b) Natural occurrence of Fusarium Toxins in Barley Harvested During Five Years in an Area of Southwest Germany. Mycopathologia 137: 185–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Müller, H.-M., Reimann, J., Schumacher, U. and Schwadorf, K. (1998) Natural Occurence of Fusarium Toxins in oats harvested during five years in an area of southwest Germany. Food Additives and Conraminants 15: 801–806.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Müller, H.-M. (1982) Entgiftung von Mykotoxinen: 1. Physikalische Verfahren. Übersichten Tierernährung 10: 95–122.Google Scholar
Müller, H.-M. (1983) Entgiftung von Mycotoxinen: 2. Chemische Verfahren und Reaktion mit Inhaltstoffen von Futtermitteln. Übersichten Tierernährung 11: 47–80.Google Scholar
Munkvold, G.P., Hellmich, R.L. and Rice, L.G. (1999) Comparison of fumonisin concentrations in kernels of transgenic bt maize hybrids and nontransgenic hybrids. Plant Disease 83: 130–138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oldenburg, E., Valenta, H., and Sator, CH. (2000) Risikoabschätzung und Vermeidungsstrategien bei der Futtermittelerzeugung. In: Risikofaktoren für die Fusariumtoxinbildung und Vermeidungsstrategien bei der Futtermittelerzeugung und Futterung. Landbauforschung Völkenrode, Sonderheft Nr. 216, Hrsg, S. Dänicke und Oldenburg, E., 5–34.Google Scholar
Obst, A, Lepschy, J., Beck, R., Bauer, G. and Bechtel, A. (2000) The risk of toxins by Fusarium graminearum in wheat – interactions between weather and agronomic factors. Mycotoxin Research 16A/1: 16–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oguz, H. and kurtoglu, V. (2000) Effect of clinoptilolite on performance of broiler chickens during experimental aflatoxicosis. British Poultry Science 41: 512–517.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oguz, H., Kurtoglu, V. and Coskun, B. (2000) Preventive efficacy of clinoptilolite in broilers during chronic aflatoxin (50 and 100 ppb) exposure. Research in Veterinary Science 69: 197–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parkhurst, C.R., Hamilton, P.B. and Ademoyero, A.A. (1992) Abnormal feathering of chicks caused by scirpenol mycotoxins differing in degree of acetylation. Poultry Science 71: 833–837.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pasteiner, S. (1998) Mycotoxins in animal husbandry. Biomin Gesunde Tiereenährung International GesmbH, Erber AG, AustriaGoogle Scholar
Pavicic, P., Spring, P., Fuchs, N. and Nemanic, A. (2001) Efficacy of esterified glucomannan to reduce the toxicity of diacetoxyscirpenol in broiler chickens. Proc. 13th European Symposium on Poultry Nutrition and Ascites WorkshopBlankenbergeBelgiumSeptember 30–October 4, 2001, pp. 136.Google Scholar
Payne, G.A. (1998) Process of contamination by aflatoxin-producing fungi and their impact on crops. In: Mycotoxins in agriculture and food safety. Ed. by Sinha, K.K. & Bhatnagar, D., Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York-Basel-Hong Kong, 279–306.Google Scholar
Pestka, J.J. and Bondy, G.S. (1994) Mycotoxin-induced immune modulation. Immunotoxicology and Immunopharmacology, 163–182.Google Scholar
Prelusky, D.B., Hamilton, R.M.G., Trenholm, H.L. and Miller, J.D. (1986) Tissue distribution and excretion of radioactivity following administration of 14C-labeled deoxynivalenol to White Leghorn hens. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology 7: 635–645.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rafai, P., Pettersson, H., Bata, A., Papp, Z., Glavits, R., Tuboly, S., Vanyi, A. and Soos, P. (2000) Effect of dietary T-2 fusariotoxin concentrations on the health and production of white Pekin duck broilers. Poultry Science 79: 1548–1556.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raju, M.V.L.N. and Devegowda, G. (2000) Influence of esterified-glucomannan on performance and organ morphology, serum biochemistry and haematology in broilers exposed to individual and combined mycotoxicosis (aflatoxin, ochratoxin and T-2 toxin). British Poultry Science 41: 640–650.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramos, A.-J., Fink-Gremmels, J. and Hernandez, E. (1996) Prevention of toxic effects of mycotoxins by means of nonnutritive adsorbent compounds. Journal of Food Protection 59: 631–641.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reams, R.Y., Thacker, H.L., Harrington, D.D., Novilla, M.N., Rottinghaus, G.E., Bennett, G.A. and Horn, J. (1997) A sudden death syndrome induced in poults and chicks fed diets containing Fusarium fujikuroi with known concentrations of moniliformin. Avian Diseases 41: 20–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riley, R.T. (1998) Mechanistic interactions of mycotoxins: Theoretical considerations. In: Mycotoxins in Agriculture and Food Safety. Ed. by Sinha, K.K. & Bhatnagar, D, Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York, Basel, Hong Kong, 227–253.Google Scholar
Rotter, B.A., Prelusky, D.B. and Pestka, J.J. (1996) Toxicology of deoxynivalenol (vomitoxin). Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 48: 1–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scott, P.M. (1984) Effect of food processing on mycotoxins. Journal of Food Protection 47: 489–499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scott, P.M. (1998) Industrial and farm detoxification processes for mycotoxins. Revue Med. Vet. 149: 543–548.Google Scholar
Sharman, M., Gilbert, J. and Chelkowski, J. (1991) A survey of the occurrence of the mycotoxin moniliformin in cereal samples from sources worldwide. Food Additives and Contaminants 8: 459–466.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Squires, E.J., Wu, J. and Summers, J.D. (1992) Zearalenone and high corn oil diets increase lipid peroxidation and liver hemorrhage in laying hens. Poultry Science 71/1: 42.Google Scholar
Trenholm, H.L., Charmley, L.L. and Prelusky, D.B. (1996) Mycotoxin binding agents: an update on what we know. Proc. of Alltech' 13th Annual Symp. on Biotechnology in the Feed Industry (Ed. Lyons, T.P. & Jcques, K.A.) Nottingham University Press, 327–349.Google Scholar
Trenholm, H.L., Prelusky, D.B. and Miller, J.D. (1989) A practical guide to the prevention of Fusarium mycotoxins in grain and animal feedstuffs. Archives of Environmental Contaminants and Toxicology 18: 443–451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ueno, Y. (1985) The toxicology of mycotoxins. Critical Reviews in Toxicology 14: 99–132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
U. S. Food and drug administration, center for food safety and applied Nutrition, center for veterinary medicine (2000) Guidance for Industry –Fumonisin levels in human foods and animal feeds.Google Scholar
Valenta, H., Dänicke, S., Flachowsky, G. and Böhme, T. (2001) Comparative study on concentrations of the Fusarium mycotoxins deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in kernels of transgenic Bt maize hybrids and nontransgenic hybrids. Proceedings of Society of Nutrition and Physiology 10: 182.Google Scholar
Vudathala, D.K., Prelusky, D.B., Ayroud, M., Trenholm, H.L. and Miller, J.D. (1994) Pharmacokinetic fate and pathological effects of 14C–fumonisin b1 in laying hens. Natural Toxins 2: 81–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weibking, T.S., Ledoux, D.R., Bermudez, AJ., Turk, J.R. and Rottinghaus, G.E. (1993a) Effects of feeding Fusarium monilifome culture material, containing known levels of fumonisin B, on the young broiler chick. Poultry Science 72: 456–466.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weibking, T.S., Ledoux, D.R., Brown, T.P. and Rottinghaus, G.E. (1993b) Fumonisin toxicity in turkey poults. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 5: 75–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wyatt, R.D., Colwell, W.M., Hamilton, P.B. and Burmeister, H.R. (1973b) Neural disturbances in chickens caused by dietary T-2 toxin. Applied Microbiology 26: 757–761.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wyatt, R.D., Doerr, J.A., Hamilton, P.B. and Burmeister, H.R. (1975) Egg production, shell thickness, and other physiological parameters of laying hens affected by T-2 toxin. Applied Microbiology 29: 641–645.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wyatt, R.D., Hamilton, P.B. and Burmeister, H.R. (1973a) The effects of T-2 toxin in broiler chickens. Poultry Science 52: 1853–1859.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ziprin, R.L. and Elissalde, M.H. (1990) Effect of T-2 toxin on resistance to systemic salmonella typhimurium infection of newly hatched chickens. American Journal of Veterinary Research 51: 1869–1872.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed