Chapter 2 places Hieron’s kingship in conversation with the Hellenistic monarchies of the eastern Mediterranean and goes on to explore the qualities of his rule that set Hieron’s basileia ahead of its time – as, for example, in his diplomatic dealings with Rome.

Decretals, epistolae decretales, are papal letters that have a claim to universal validity and clarify questions of Church law. Already in Late Antiquity, petitioners would submit legal or disciplinary questions to the Roman emperor, who in response would provide authoritative answers in imperial rescripts. Papal decretal law was the product of an analogous procedure. Private parties would ask the pope to adjudicate their disputes, and in response the pope would set forth authoritative answers in decretal letters. The oldest fully preserved papal decretal is by Pope Siricius (384–99). Only with the pontificate of Alexander III (1159–81), however, did the number of decretals skyrocket and, as a result, there take place the further legal development and elaboration of the ius novum. Just two generations after Gratian’s Decretum (c. 1140), papal legislative acts had developed and changed canon law like never before.

Anton Chekhov and Leo Tolstoy imagined a diverse nation in different ways, but each embraced humanity in all its diversity and did so not only as artist but also as citizen and moral spokesman. In Chekhov’s The Island of Sakhalin (1895) and Tolstoy’s Resurrection (1899), the writers led the evolution of the artist’s role as a new civic actor on the national stage. Russian writers began to dream in the 1860s of an inclusive big tent of the arts, but just what and how the disparate elements of Russian society might share in a common culture was contested. Tolstoy and Chekhov expressed their own views on the topic in their books Resurrection and Sakhalin, which were neither backward-looking glorifications of peasant traditions nor forward-looking visions of modernization. Rather, the authors described people sharing the vast landscape of the empire in recognition of their commonality, acceptance of diversity, and rejection of parochial interests. They emphasized place rather than time. Both authors carved out a shared national space, within which they offered readers a new view of their fellow citizens. Of the two authors, it would be Chekhov rather than Tolstoy who transitioned successfully into the next wave of innovation in art.