In late Antiquity there were too many hierarchies for comfort. How to coordinate them was not self-evident. This chapter looks at the apostolic see’s efforts to resolve a case where imperial law clashed with episcopal law, to regulate relations between the imperial and episcopal hierarchy (in which the bishop of Rome was included), and to coordinate hierarchy of command with status hierarchy. Indissolubility of marriage (papal versus imperial rulings), the ban on members of the curial class entering the clergy, and metropolitan episcopal jurisdiction are discussed.

This chapter deals with the importance of the New Testament epistles of Paul, particularly Romans and Galatians, in the shaping of early Christian thinking on justification. After an initial overview of the wider importance of Paul, the emerging scholarly consensus that Paul was much more widely cited and used by early Christian writers than was thought a generation ago is explored. The chapter then focusses on three broad areas relating to justification in the pre-Augustinian tradition: the early phase from Irenaeus to Origen, the fourth century in the Greek East, and the fourth century in the Latin West, focussing particularly on Ambrosiaster. During the fourth century, the Pauline commentary emerged as a particularly important means of theological exploration and development in the Latin West, and had a clear impact on the consolidation of the western church’s theological vocabulary, particularly relating to justification. The chapter focusses particularly on how early Christian writers understood the Pauline phrase 'works of the law', noting that this was generally understood specifically in terms of the observance of the Mosaic law and its rituals. The way in which Paul's doctrine of justification by faith acts as a framework for discussing heilsgechichtliche issues – such as the faith of Abraham – is also noted.

While the ‘bigamy’ rules applied only to the clergy, and remarriage by lay men or women after a spouse’s death was unproblematic, the indissolubility rule applied to all. The earliest papal legislation was already trying to enforce the system (perhaps unique in the history of literate societies) that ruled out both divorce and polygamy. For the married clergy one can imagine that this was successful in that they were under the bishop’s control. What effect it had on the laity is impossible to estimate but the legacy of these decretals would be a key fact in medieval history. Exclusion from communion after proven adultery came within the purview of the clergy.