This chapter looks at the rivalry between religion and philosophy in German culture after 1800, starting with the Reformation anniversary of 1817 and concluding with Schleiermacher’s and Hegel’s competing tercentennial celebrations of the Augsburg Confession in 1830. It starts with a discussion of the Wartburg Festival in 1817, in which students and veterans of the Battle of Leipzig (1813) met at Wartburg Castle, where Luther translated the gospels while in hiding after being declared an outlaw and heretic at the Diet of Worms (1521). It then looks at the ways in which new philosophical and historical ideas about the legacy and impact of the Reformation were reflected in popular and accessible writings, specifically Friedrich Keyser’s Reformations-Almanach (1817, 1819). Finally, through an analysis of late-career works by the most famous theologian and the most famous philosopher of the day – the Berlin University rivals Hegel and Schleiermacher – the chapter’s last section shows how the Reformation was constituted in public discourse as a legitimation strategy for intellectuals courting public opinion and official favor.

This chapter explores popular and learned manifestations of an increasingly difficult neutral position at the height of the Reformation in Germany, in order to underscore and reassess the prevalence of third forces in sixteenth-century religion. The first two sections examine experiences of ambivalent change, at the scale of territorial Reformations and at the scale of personal and local histories. The remaining sections review sixteenth-century attempts to theorize a middle-ground position. Those attempts challenge the historian to integrate marginal, unconventional viewpoints into an otherwise “confessional” intellectual milieu.

Philip Melanchthon is undoubtedly one of the most significant figures to emerge from the Reformation. However, his legacy is frequently overshadowed by Martin Luther and John Calvin – in large part because of his close relationship with both. Because of this, Melanchthon has infrequently been the focus of historical research, functioning much more frequently as a footnote to Luther or a sounding board for Calvin. Yet Melanchthon’s work and writings shaped the religious landscape of Europe and he left an indelible influence on both Lutheranism and the Reformed tradition – particularly through his biblical scholarship and Loci Communes. The overlooking of Melanchthon is, to some extent, explained by the final years of his life, during which he was almost universally disdained for his perceived betrayal of Lutheran principles at the Leipzig Interim. Because of this, Melanchthon has frequently been disregarded or maligned in confessional histories of Lutheranism and the Reformed faith. In more recent years, however, the significance of Melanchthon’s Loci Communes, his contributions to early modern biblical scholarship, his role in the political developments of the German Reformation, and his relationship with Calvin have come to be recognized as formative influences on the history of the early modern world.