Machiavellis attack on the civic humanism of Leonardo Bruni reveals Bruni to be a substantial opponent.

Chapter 2 is a prelude to the main account of reception but offers some analysis of the first great reference to Plutarch in the post-classical world in John of Salisbury’s Policraticus (c. 1159). Despite the apocryphal nature of John’s Plutarch, the association of Plutarch as tutor to the Emperor Trajan was a trope which provided greater weight to the authority of his writing in the subsequent history of political thought. In the latter part of this chapter, I give a brief synopsis of a few essays (“On Homer” and “On the Education of Children”) which are now deemed apocryphal but which for many early modern scholars formed a legitimate part of Plutarch’s corpus. I discuss how we should consider these texts in the context of a history of Plutarch reception. I also discuss briefly the development of scholarship on Plutarch in early Renaissance Italy.

This chapter discusses Italian humanism for the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries from the point of view of ideas justifying power. It shows that these humanists were expressly concerned with the justification of power. The method they used was fundamentally different from the scholastic one employed by the conciliarists and their opponents: the humanists used rhetoric based on their knowledge of Latin and Greek works. The chapter considers republican thought at Florence (Bruni and Plamieri). Humanists also justified both republican and signorial or princely regimes: Patizi and Platina argued both ways. Arguments in favour of mixed constitutions are discussed, notably in the case of Venice with the works of Vergerio and Quirini. Many authors wrote in defence of signorial or princely regimes, notably those of Milan and Naples. Particular attention is given to the argument that, whatever the origins of the ruler's power might be, his rule is justified if he acts with virtue. Machiavelli was unusual in that he did not believe that power had to be justified. His treatment of how a prince might maintain his state and also his defence of republican liberty are discussed.

Florentines were not simply avid readers of history; many also wrote historical works. Some motivations were personal and familial; a history of past service to the city was a marker of status. For others, history served as a form of political thought. The keeping of diaries of political events, often with the goal of developing them into modern histories, was already an established tradition and continued to expand during the sixteenth century. This experience made Florentine readers sharp critics of historical writings, and imposed high standards of accuracy and interpretation; major authors and their works enjoyed a high profile. Many died with their works unfinished, including Francesco Guicciardini, Benedetto Varchi, and the exile Jacopo Nardi. Florentines also took an avid interest in the city’s numerous medieval chronicles, editing with care the works of Giovanni Villani, Ricordano Malispini, and more. Several wrote works of medieval history, notably Pierfrancesco Giambullari, Cosimo Bartoli, Silvano Razzi, and Domenico Mellini.