This article seeks to analyze the cocoa circuits during the final years of the Viceroyalty of New Granada, the transition towards independence and the beginning of the world cocoa crisis in 1820. Added to the traditional circuits of Guayaquil and Maracaibo linked with Pamplona, the article identifies circuits that were speculated to exist in the southwest of New Granada, but because they did not move large volumes, they were not considered for production statistics. These small productions supplied the domestic market, also exported or integrated into circuits from other places that had better interactions in international markets. It is not a microhistory of cocoa in remote regions, it is the history of a cocoa overshadowed by the visibility of others.

Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) was domesticated in Mesoamerica and is native to the South American rainforest. Belizean Criollo is a group of relic landraces that are thought to be similar to those used by the Olmecs and Mayans during early domestication. Knowledge of genetic diversity is essential for efficient conservation and use of these relic landraces. Using 30 microsatellite markers, we characterized genetic diversity in 77 Belize Criollo accessions collected from the Maya Mountains in Belize, and assessed their relationship with 62 cacao accessions including 25 Trinitario accessions. Genetic diversity and heterozygosity were low in Belizean Criollo germplasm. Eleven distinctive genotypes were identified among the Belizean germplasm. Results of ordination and cluster analysis supported their putative ancestral contribution to the Trinitario cacao. However, results of Bayesian assignment and parentage analysis both suggested that the contribution of Criollo cacao to the Imperial College Selections Trinitario is small. Our preferred hypothesis for the genesis of Trinitario cacao is that a limited population of Criollo × Forastero hybrids emanated from the introduced Forastero population of Trinidad. The present study provides new insights into the origin of the Trinitario cacao, which will be useful in the ex situ and in situ conservation of cacao landraces from Mesoamerica.

Cocoa butterfat and cocoa powder are key economic products from the seeds of the cacao tree (Theobroma cacao L.). In this study, 323 accessions (comprised mainly of Upper Amazon Forasteros and Refractarios) from the International Cocoa Genebank, Trinidad were characterized for one biochemical and five morphological seed-derived traits. The data were analysed using non-parametric statistics including correlation analysis to identify promising parental candidates for future cacao breeding programmes. The Upper Amazon Forastero group had the greatest proportion of accessions with high butterfat content in cotyledons, whereas Refractario and Trinitario groups tended to contain more accessions with high butterfat content per fruit. The correlation of butterfat content of cotyledons with the dry mass of cotyledons was inconsistent in significance and direction. However, consistent significant positive correlations between butterfat content per fruit, cotyledon size and dry mass of cotyledons were found. The results suggested that butterfat content is a likely trait for independent selection but that selection for increased cotyledon size could lead to the selection of genotypes for high butterfat yield. Several promising accessions exhibited favourable levels of multiple traits and MATINA 1/7, CRU 51, AM 2/91 [POU], CRU 133, EET 58 [ECU] and POUND 18/A [POU] could be recommended as good choices for parental stock in breeding programmes for improving cacao butterfat content.

From August 1988 to January 1997, natural enemies were reared from 335 colonies of Plnnococcus citri Risso (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) sampled for 87 months from 225 randomly selected cocoa farms in the six cocoa-growing regions in Ghana. A total of 20,408 P. citri individuals was recorded, comprising adult females, third instar nymphs and mummified individuals harbouring parasitoids. Observed predators were larvae of Coccodiplosis coffeae Barnes (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), nymphs and adults of Hyperaspis egregia Mader and Scymnus (Pullus) sp. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), as well as an unidentified lepidopteran. Twelve parasitic Hymenoptera were also reared, including Aenasius abengouroui (Risbec), Leptomastix dactylopii Howard, Anagyrus beneficions Compere, Tropidophryne melvillei Compere, Anagyrus amoenus Compere and Chryptochetum (Lestophonus) spp. Also recorded were a hyperparasitoid, Cheiloneurus carinatus Compere, parasitising Coc. coffeae, Xyplugaster pseudococci Risbec and six rare, undetermined parasitoids. Coccodiplosis coffeae was the commonest parasitoid, occurring throughout the year and infesting 72.8% of the P. citri colonies. Parasitism levels were generally low, the highest mean being 4.6 ± 2.6% for Aen. abengouroui. Simultaneous parasitism by more than one species was common and this gave rise to mean monthly parasitism levels ranging from 0.8 to 4.5%. Aenasius abengouroui, Ana. amoenus and H. egregia are being reported for the first time in P. citri on cocoa in Ghana, and the recovery of L. dactylopii suggests its establishment in the country, where it was introduced in 1949.

Floral fragrance oils related to pollination were studied in three species of Theobroma and one Herrania species (Sterculiaceae) in Costa Rica. This study was prompted by field observations that floral odours and floral visitors are markedly different between Theobroma and Herrania, as well as between species of Theobroma.

Floral fragrance in cultivated T. cacao consisted of 78 components, primarily saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, with 1-pentadecene the major constituent followed by n−pentadecane. The distribution of 1-pentadecene was similar at 0900 hr (43.6%), 1130 hr (52.5%) and 2000 hr (51.1%) sampling times but only 1.2% at 1600 hr. The ratio of 1-pentadecene to n−pentadecane in the 1600 hr sample, approximately 1:6, contrasted with a 3:1 ratio at 0900 and 1130 and a 6:1 ratio at 2000 hr. The greatest concentration of volatiles was found in the 1130 hr sample, with 0900 and 2000 hr concentrations being essentially equal and intermediate between the high (1130 hr) and the low (1600 hr).

Of the 58 compounds detected in T. mammosum steam distillate at 0815 hr, an array of linalool oxides accounted for 12.5% of the oil followed by isoeugenol (8.9%). Saturated hydrocarbons were also present but, unlike T. cacao, n-tricosane was the major hydrocarbon (12.2%). The major constituents of T. mammosum oil clearly distinguish this species from T. cacao.

A markedly different profile of major floral volatiles was found in T. simiarum: major constituents included the monoterpenoids citral, geraniol, nerol, and citronellol. Unlike the oily, hydrocarbon fragrance of T. cacao and T. mammosum, T. simiarum floral fragrance is citrus-like both in the field and laboratory. Our fragrance studies suggest considerable evolutionary divergence within Theobroma.

The floral fragrance of H. cuatrecasana contained volatiles characteristic of dipteran-pollinated plant species. Unusual volatiles found in Herrania fragrance included iridomyrmecin, guaiol, and other azulenic derivatives. No such monoterpenoids and bicyclic sesquiterpenoids (with the exception of longifolene, 0.1%, in T. simiarum) were found in Theobroma. The profiles of floral fragrance chemotaxonomically support the exclusion of Herrania spp. from the genus Theobroma.

Floral characteristics related to pollination were studied in four species of Theobroma and one species of Herrania (Sterculiaceae) in Costa Rica. Anthesis was complete in T. cacao, T. simiarum, T. speciosum, and T. mammosum at 0615 hr following an extended period of floral development throughout the night. Flowers of both T. cacao and Herrania cuatrecusana were fully open by dawn and pollen sacs dehisced throughout the morning hours. Stigma and style receptivity, assessed by hydrogen peroxide tests, were high throughout the morning and early afternoon in T. cacao. Bagged flowers resulted in no fruit-set. When petal ligules were experimentally removed there was no change in rates of flower abortion or total numbers of aborted flowers, tentatively suggesting that these structures play little or no role in attracting pollinators. Both Theobroma and Herrania flowers possess ultraviolet light reflectance'absorbance patterns which may play a role in pollinator attraction. Uptake of neutral red stain in T. cacao and T. simiarum showed scattered glandular activity on petals and sepals, perhaps indicating location of nectaries or other secretory organs. Conspicuous glandular trichomes on the ovary, on the lower third of the style, and in a conspicuous “basal ring” between petals and sepals (most pronounced and colorful in species other than T. cacao) may be sources of both floral attractant and reward.

Differences in floral biology among Theobroma and Herrania species suggest divergence in pollination strategies. The data presented are discussed in terms of plant-pollinator specializations in the New World tropics.