Chapter 1 presents the debate about republicanism before the French Revolution. Montesquieu played an important part in this debate as he formulated the influential “scale thesis” according to which republicanism could not be adequate for a large country. Montesquieu raised a set of challenges to would-be republicans in France (the “motivation,” “unity,” and “epistemic” challenges). The rest of the chapter presents theoretical resources in different republican traditions (notably Italian, English, American) that informed the French republicans on key issues (conquest, freedom, commerce, institutions). This chapter retraces the context in which the myth of outdated republicanism was born, but also how the elitist and martial dimensions of the republican tradition shaped French republicanism.

The considerations outlined in earlier parts of the book are recalled in order to emphasize the importance of unconscious processes in the development of religious cognition. In this context, the importance of mythological aspects of religious texts is stressed, since the archetypal resonances of these texts – especially when reflected in liturgical usage or used in contemplative exercises – are of considerable importance in relation to noetic apprehension of the divine reality. In this context, the five theses set out in in Chapter 1 are discussed in more detail. In addition, problems of elitism and its suppression are discussed, as well as the position of those who claim to be spiritual but not religious. It is suggested that these people may, in fact, need one of the ‘doctrinal religions’ that they shun if they are to make progress on the spiritual path on which they find themselves.

This chapter examines the newly expanded and transformed theatre ecology enabled by the post-war rise of central government subsidy to the arts. It explores subsidy’s ambitions, achievements, and benefits, but also its turbulence and the ideological risks embedded in its deeply ambivalent objectives to foster elite arts but also democratise the arts. The chapter begins by giving a history of British theatre subsidy and considers its contribution to the development of theatre as one of Britain’s great cultural assets through its visionary promotion of such things as artists’ independence, the expansion of theatre infrastructure, and a conception of theatre as a civic right. The chapter then considers some of the hazards arising from how theatre subsidy has been practised by the Arts Council of Great Britain (and successor organisations), especially its tendency to reinforce elite privileges of metropolitanism, class, and whiteness. The chapter critiques the elitism of British arts subsidy’s legacy and proposes transformation of its practices to become more accountable, more democratic, and more dispersed, helping to make British theatre and culture more diverse and better informed by a greater variety of imaginations.

Times of crisis call for powerful rhetoric. This section consists of seven speeches that address political, moral, or educational crises of their time. They range from high points of rhetoric to dishonest or ineffective displays of rhetoric. The speakers include Abraham Lincoln, Theodore Roosevelt, Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton, Donald Trump, Alexander Solzhenitsyn, and Allan Bloom.

The final chapter examines Cavell’s theory of democratic perfectionism. Traditional perfectionist political philosophy views the purpose of the polity as the promotion of human flourishing. Contemporary liberals rejected perfectionism on two grounds. John Rawls believed perfectionism was antidemocratic because it was elitist. Isaiah Berlin claimed perfectionism was illiberal because it posited a singular end to life at the expense of all others. Against these claims, Cavell’s later work recovered an inherently egalitarian variety of perfectionism from the American Transcendentalist tradition. While agreeing with Cavell’s defense of perfectionism against liberal critiques, the chapter raises two limits to perfectionism. The first is that it runs the risk of turning into “debased perfectionism,” where striving for an unattained yet attainable self can lead to status anxiety. Second, Cavell pays insufficient attention to the economic conditions necessary for one to lead a perfectionist life. The chapter concludes by reading Thoreau’s writings on economics against Cavell’s reading of Thoreau. It argues that a greater attention to the economic dimension in perfectionism would address some of the concerns that liberal critics raise about perfectionism elitism.

Chapter 6 investigates the debate surrounding Julian’s final – and fundamental, in the eyes of late Roman intellectuals – objection to Christianity: his critique of its universalising rhetoric. Third- and fourth-century bishops legitimised their increasing political prominence through competitive arguments pointing to Christianity as the only philosophy that was accessible to everyone, including the ill-educated. Julian set in opposition to this the Platonist belief that any self-confessed system of knowledge appealing to the many disqualifies its intellectual authority by revealing crowd-pleasing (hence, deceptive) ambitions. The reaction of upper-class Christians, divided between the popular consensus and allegiance to Julian’s elitist sensibilities, demonstrates the criticality of this argument. Yet – as I show in the second section – the Neoplatonic objection to the Christian rhetoric of universalism ultimately displaced non-Christian philosophers from the political scene (Eunapius’ Lives of the Philosophers and Sophists). Moreover, the rising popularity of ascetic leaders encouraged even highly authoritative ecclesiastical voices (e.g., John Chrysostom) to question the validity of Greco-Roman education. This, ironically, resulted in a power-driven challenge to the validity of the cultural system whose adaptation had been key to stabilising Christian power.

In chapter 3, I present the concept of “democratic dissonance,” which plays a significant role in the book. By this concept, I refer to the rupture between political practices and our expectations of them, a gap produced by institutions erected on the basis of assumptions about democracy and society that can no longer be sustained. In the chapter I maintain that the conception of democracy upon which the constitutional institutions were built was “restricted” (i.e., distrust towards majority rule and citizens’ participation in politics) and that the societies of those times were politically “contained” (i.e., in terms of restrictions on political rights). In this chapter, I suggest that such institutional legacy tends to create serious political problems when same institutions are directed to govern, in our time, a completely different social base, one marked by the conviction that public policies must be in line with our fundamental political claims and that our public life must be guided by our collective decisions.

In this chapter I show that the judicial branch, as it was designed at the end of the 18th century, jeopardized the democratic nature of the incipient governments. As many contemporary critics of judicial review maintain, I argue that it is “offensive” (“it seems something of an insult”) for a democratic society, and for the equal dignity of its members, that in the face of profound constitutional disagreements, a minority of judges, and not the representatives of the people, pronounce the last word on the matter (Waldron 1999). I explore the “democratic objection” against judicial review through a diversity of cases and debates, including Alexander Hamilton’s early defense of judicial review in Federalist Papers n. 78, and John Marshall’s famous decision in Marbury v. Madison. I conclude this chapter by showing that the “decisive argument” against the dominant, standard position on the justification of judicial review is (what I call) the “interpretive gap” argument.

The prevailing paradigm of modern art in Brazil still revolves around the Modern Art Week of 1922, in São Paulo, and the self-professed avant-gardes that derived from that event. What came immediately before it is usually relegated to a limbo status, as neither modern nor non-modern. The introduction casts doubt upon the widely accepted category pre-modernism, questioning its validity as a historical construct. Evidence demonstrates that alternate modernisms existed in the Brazilian context prior to 1922. Chief among these is a variant of modernism linked to the rising urban culture of music, dance, theatre, humour, graphics and cinema in Rio de Janeiro. The relative lack of scholarly interest in mass culture has led to a tendency to overstate the impact of erudite expressions in literature, fine art and architecture. Other arenas of cultural production have been systematically overlooked, including ones to which Afro-Brazilian artists made important contributions. This skewed perspective subtly elides how elite practitioners often appropriated subaltern identities to reinforce their own claims to modernity, vis-à-vis their European counterparts. The book proposes to examine the conflicts between primitivism and nationalism, modernism and archaism. Rethinking these tensions in the Brazilian context helps make sense of divergent models of modernism elsewhere.

The evolution of World Englishes has widely affected and transformed the lives of many people in many countries; it is thus a process of great cultural and political significance. This chapter surveys some social debates and issues which have arisen in this context and attitudes towards new varieties of English, outlining sociocultural contexts and considerations affecting the emergence and acquisition of World Englishes. Topics include the association of English with "elitism", accessible mainly through higher education and thus a class divider, as opposed to its "grassroots growth"; the claim that it is a "killer language" reducing global linguistic diversity; norm orientations (towards a supposed "international English", "English as a Lingua Franca", or endonormative models); the role of new dialects of expressing local identities; the problematic status of the notion of a "native speaker"; the spread of mixed language forms; and pedagogical consequences resulting from all these issues.

The chapter discusses the current backlash against transnational law, as exemplified in the Brexit discussions underway in the United Kingdom. That backlash, it is argued, is based on an irrational nostalgic desire for the past: there is no return to the nation state as it existed. But much contemporary transnational law suffers from a nostalgia of its own—nostalgia for the period, some sixty years ago, when transnational law was first developed. That time, the post-war area, is as irreversibly passé as is the nation state, and transnational law, it is argued, can no longer rest on the ideas of its birth. Instead, the chapter advocates for a renewal of transnational law based on a new “PRIDE.” That PRIDE consists of a number of elements: politicization of law, redistribution as challenge, inclusion of outsiders (including opponents), democratization of law making and adjudication instead of exaggerated trust in experts or seemingly natural consequences, and energization and emotion to counter the emotionality of opponents.