‘Food deserts’ and ‘food swamps’ are food retail environment typologies associated with unhealthy diet and obesity. The current study aimed to identify more complex food retail environment typologies and examine temporal trends.

Measures of food retail environment accessibility and relative healthy food availability were defined for small areas (SA2s) of Melbourne, Australia, from a census of food outlets operating in 2008, 2012, 2014 and 2016. SA2s were classified into typologies using a two-stage approach: (1) SA2s were sorted into twenty clusters according to accessibility and availability and (2) clusters were grouped using evidence-based thresholds.

The current study was set in Melbourne, the capital city of the state of Victoria, Australia.

Food retail environments in 301 small areas (Statistical Area 2) located in Melbourne in 2008, 2012, 2014 and 2016.

Six typologies were identified based on access (low, moderate and high) and healthy food availability including one where zero food outlets were present. Over the study period, SA2s experienced an overall increase in accessibility and healthiness. Distribution of typologies varied by geographic location and area-level socio-economic position.

Multiple typologies with contrasting access and healthiness measures exist within Melbourne and these continue to change over time, and the majority of SA2s were dominated by the presence of unhealthy relative to healthy outlets, with SA2s experiencing growth and disadvantage having the lowest access and to a greater proportion of unhealthy outlets.

In 2016, a Whole Foods Market© opened in the Englewood community of Chicago, IL – a predominately low-income African American community. This study aimed to examine changes to food and beverage availability and marketing in Englewood’s existing food stores after the opening of this supermarket.

Quasi-experimental study.

Two low-income African American communities in Chicago, IL.

Fieldworkers audited all small grocery and limited service stores (e.g. convenience stores, liquor stores and dollar/discount stores) located within one-square mile of the new supermarket and a one-square mile area of a demographically comparable community that also lacked a supermarket. Stores were audited before (2016) and after (2017 and 2018) the supermarket opened.

Of the 78 stores audited at baseline, 71·8 % were limited service stores and 85·9 % accepted Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) benefits. Overall, the availability of healthy food and beverage options in nearby small stores was low at baseline and both follow-up periods. Difference-in-difference regression models revealed a significant increase in: (1) the percentage of stores in the intervention community (i.e. Englewood) offering regular cheese and promoting salty snacks at check-out from 2016 to 2017; and (2) the percentage of stores in the comparison community with interior store promotions for other sweetened beverages from 2016 to 2018.

Minimal changes in food and beverage availability and marketing occurred 1 and 2 years after the opening of a new supermarket. However, the wide range of staple food items offered by the supermarket expanded healthy food retail in Chicago’s Englewood community.

This study assesses the association between living in a food desert and cardiovascular health risk among young adults in the USA, as well as evaluates whether personal and area socioeconomic status moderates this relationship.

A cross-sectional analysis was performed using data from Wave I (1993–1994) and Wave IV (2008) from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. Ordinary least squares regression models assessing the association between living in a food desert and cardiovascular health were performed. Mediation and moderation analyses assessed the degree to which this association was conditioned by area and personal socioeconomic status.

Sample of respondents living in urban census tracts in the USA in 2008.

Young adults (n 8896) aged 24–34 years.

Net of covariates living in a food desert had a statistically significant association with cardiovascular health risk (range 0–14) (β = 0·048, P < 0·01). This association was partially mediated by area and personal socioeconomic status. Further analyses demonstrate that the adverse association between living in a food desert and cardiovascular health is concentrated among low socioeconomic status respondents.

The findings from this study suggest a complex interplay between food deserts and economic conditions for the cardiovascular health of young adults. Developing interventions that aim to improve health behaviour among lower-income populations may yield benefits for preventing the development of cardiovascular health problems.

To assess access to healthy food retailers among formerly incarcerated individuals.

Using linked data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health and the Modified Retail Food Environment Index, the present study applies multivariate logistic regression to assess the association between incarceration and (i) living in a food desert and (ii) having low access to healthy food retailers. To account for unobserved heterogeneity, additional analyses are performed comparing formerly incarcerated individuals with persons arrested or convicted for a crime but not previously incarcerated.

Sample of respondents living in urban census tracts in the USA.

Adults (n 10390) aged 24–34 years.

In adjusted logistic regression models, prior incarceration was not significantly associated with living in a food desert (OR=1·097; 95% CI 0·896, 1·343). Prior incarceration significantly increased the likelihood of living in a census tract with low access to healthy food retailers (OR=1·265; 95% CI 1·069, 1·498). This significant association remained when comparing formerly incarcerated individuals with those who had been arrested or convicted of a crime, but not previously incarcerated (OR=1·246; 95% CI 1·032, 1·503).

Formerly incarcerated individuals are more likely to live in areas with low access to healthy food retailers compared with their non-incarcerated counterparts. Because lower access healthy food retailers may be associated with worse health and dietary behaviour, disparities in local food retail environments may exacerbate health inequalities among formerly incarcerated individuals.

To examine where residents in an area with limited access to healthy foods (an urban food desert) purchased healthier and less healthy foods.

Food shopping receipts were collected over a one-week period in 2013. These were analysed to describe where residents shopped for food and what types of food they bought.

Two low-income, predominantly African-American neighbourhoods with limited access to healthy foods in Pittsburgh, PA, USA.

Two hundred and ninety-three households in which the primary food shoppers were predominantly female (77·8 %) and non-Hispanic black (91·1 %) adults.

Full-service supermarkets were by far the most common food retail outlet from which food receipts were returned and accounted for a much larger proportion (57·4 %) of food and beverage expenditures, both healthy and unhealthy, than other food retail outlets. Although patronized less frequently, convenience stores were notable purveyors of unhealthy foods.

Findings highlight the need to implement policies that can help to decrease unhealthy food purchases in full-service supermarkets and convenience stores and increase healthy food purchases in convenience stores.

To provide a richer understanding of food access and purchasing practices among US urban food desert residents and their association with diet and BMI.

Data on food purchasing practices, dietary intake, height and weight from the primary food shopper in randomly selected households (n 1372) were collected. Audits of all neighbourhood food stores (n 24) and the most-frequented stores outside the neighbourhood (n 16) were conducted. Aspects of food access and purchasing practices and relationships among them were examined and tests of their associations with dietary quality and BMI were conducted.

Two low-income, predominantly African-American neighbourhoods with limited access to healthy food in Pittsburgh, PA, USA.

Household food shoppers.

Only one neighbourhood outlet sold fresh produce; nearly all respondents did major food shopping outside the neighbourhood. Although the nearest full-service supermarket was an average of 2·6 km from their home, respondents shopped an average of 6·0 km from home. The average trip was by car, took approximately 2 h for the round trip, and occurred two to four times per month. Respondents spent approximately $US 37 per person per week on food. Those who made longer trips had access to cars, shopped less often and spent less money per person. Those who travelled further when they shopped had higher BMI, but most residents already shopped where healthy foods were available, and physical distance from full-service supermarkets was unrelated to weight or dietary quality.

Improved access to healthy foods is the target of current policies meant to improve health. However, distance to the closest supermarket might not be as important as previously thought, and thus policy and interventions that focus merely on improving access may not be effective.