Mongol rule in Rus′ was profound, especially in the administration of taxes and tribute, which were adapted to the traditions of Rus′ian princely governance. The thirteenth century was a “dark age” when Rus′ was subjected to severe Mongol attacks and tribute was imposed under the supervision of basqaqs. The Rus′ian church, however, was exempted from paying tribute. Through the bestowal of a yarligh, the Mongols designated the rulers of Rus′ian principalities, including the grand prince of Vladimir, titular head of the Rus′. The fourteenth century saw the rise of Moscow, as its princes gradually monopolized the collection of the tribute. By the first quarter of the fifteenth century, Mongol rule had weakened as the effects of plague, civil wars within the Golden Horde, Tamerlane’s attacks, and the fracturing of the Golden Horde into separate khanates took their toll. By 1480 and the Battle of the Ugra River, Mongol rule was effectively over.

The chapter reviews the Mongols’ political, administrative, and economic relations with the forest peoples of Siberia and the Mongol impact on the region. It stresses the inclusion of Siberia’s northern products in the Eurasian east–west trade network and the transformations – linguistic, ethnic, and religious – caused by Mongol rule, as well as providing a panoramic view of forest–steppe relations before and after the Mongol period.

Chinggis Khan granted his eldest son Jochi parts of Mongolia, Siberia, Khwārazm, and the Qipchaq steppe. The Golden Horde (Jochid Ulus) rose from these territories and newly conquered lands, including the Russian principalities, in the 1260s. Benefiting from their unique location at the intersection of Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, they pursued a multilateral diplomacy and built lasting trade and military partnerships with the West and the Islamic world. Although politically independent, the Golden Horde kept close ties with the other Mongol khanates until they collapsed gradually in the fourteenth century. The Jochids subsequently adapted to the new environment and created several khanates in the Crimea, Central Asia, and Siberia. These smaller but enduring powers inherited the Golden Horde’s political and literary traditions, some surviving into modern times. The Golden Horde also had a deep impact on the state formation of its sedentary neighbors and former vassals.

The Sultanate drew upon concepts of martial skill, valor and aggression attributed to the Mongol Imperium and its unprecedented conquests. While idealizing these traits, Mamluk Sultans exploited them to thwart Mongol expansion into their territories. They welcomed renegades from Mongol armies (Wafidiyya) to mimic their prowess while limiting their aggression. Mamluk cadets were imported initially from the Qipjaq Steppe in Central Asia, subsequently from Circassia in the Caucasus, with numerous other regions represented. They were instructed in Arabic, Turkish and Islam prior to being trained in arms. The Mamluk military hierarchy consisted of elite Mamluks imported as cadets in the Sultan’s service, Mamluks of senior officers, soldiers of former rulers restive over their loss of status, and descendants of 1st-generation Mamluks who served as infantry and assimilated into Arabic civil society (awlad al-nas). Advancement through the military hierarchy was marked by endemic factional rivalry in which conspiracy was expected not repudiated. Whether conspiracy enhanced the Sultanate’s military prowess or destabilized its governance remains a debated issue.

According to the Mongol imperial ideology, when the Mongols fought with neighboring nations, they not only expanded their empire by conquest but also fulfilled the heavenly task of establishing order throughout the world by subordinating it to Chinggis khan (r.1206–27) and his successors. Therefore, the Mongols demanded the subordination to their empire of all peoples without exception, regardless of whether they were nomadic or sedentary. To be at peace with the Mongols meant unquestioning obedience to them, and other nations could not hope for peace without the official recognition of this subordination.