This chapter investigates the identities and motivations of learners of small, endangered and minoritized heritage languages, especially adults. Our case studies are from two contexts which have both similarities and contrasts: Guernesiais, a small, highly endangered language in Guernsey, Channel Islands; and Māori, a larger minoritized language spoken in New Zealand. We compare and contrast our findings with regard to salient factors that emerge as adults decide to learn these languages: motivation, identity construction and empowerment. Established frameworks of motivation and identity did not to match our contexts and emerging findings. Many interviewees reported being motivated by a desire to reconnect with roots, or to reclaim elements of their identity or culture which they feel have been denied to them. Our new speakers of minoritized languages actively seek revitalization through language as an enrichment of their individual or group identity, rather than profit- or prestige-related orientations, or lofty yet vague aspirations to ‘save the language’. The concept of muda, or ‘act of identity’ as a pivotal stage in learning a new language, is especially salient to our findings.

This chapter describes some prevalent ideologies and attitudes found in minority language communities. It emphasizes the importance of listening to attitudes expressed in a community, and identifying the underlying ideologies, before developing programs to improve negative attitudes. Particularly in cases of linguistic discrimination and language trauma (e.g. Breton, Kashubian Polish), changing language ideologies is a long-term process and must be handled sensitively. The best approach is to make people aware of ideologies and how they function, through education, media and other means. Case studies address ideologies leading to the loss of Zadar Arbanasi in Croatia, and a positive shift in attitudes to Guernesiais, although these are not necessarily followed by action. In the Isle of Man, in order to change perceptions of Manx it is necessary to avoid arguments about the authenticity of the modern form of the language. In Jeju (Korea) Jejudommal is seen as a language in which emotions can be expressed more richly than in Standard Korean. Negative attitudes and ideologies associated with speaking Nahuatl are described.

What should be revitalized? This chapter considers possible targets for revitalization, taking into account factors such as available resources, whether the language is still spoken, in what domains and by whom. Different people in language revitalization movements have different aims and motivations, and choices must be made about what varieties should be prioritized (including elements of language such as topics, registers and vocabulary). The needs and desires of new and old speakers need to be balanced, with compromises between those who want to preserve a ‘pure’ variety of language and what people actually do - particularly new speakers, as the language expands into new domains and new terminology is needed. In the capsules, an activist describes his realisation that for revitalization purposes he needed to give up looking for ‘the pure Wymysiöeryś language’ and start listening to what people were actually saying. Purist attitudes to Spanish influence on Nahuatl are explored, showing how they had counter-productive effects on language survival. Some activists are now starting to encourage young people to create neologisms from within the heritage language.