Skin-based samples (leather, skin, and parchment) in archaeological, historic and museum settings are among the most challenging materials to radiocarbon (14C) date in terms of removing exogenous carbon sources—comparable to bone collagen in many respects but with much less empirical study to guide pretreatment approaches. In the case of leather, the 14C content of materials used in manufacturing the leather can vary greatly. The presence of leather manufacturing chemicals before pretreatment and their absence afterward is difficult to demonstrate, and the accuracy of dates depends upon isolating the original animal proteins and removing exogenous carbon. Parchments differ in production technique from leather but include similar unknowns. It is not clear that lessons learned in the treatment of one are always salient for treating the other. We measured the 14C content of variously pretreated leather, parchment, skin samples, and extracts, producing apparent ages that varied by hundreds or occasionally thousands of years depending upon sample pretreatment. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and C:N ratios provided insight into the chemical composition of carbon reservoirs contributing to age differences. The results of these analyses demonstrated that XAD column chromatography resulted in the most accurate 14C dates for leather and samples of unknown tannage, and FTIR allowed for the detection of contamination that might have otherwise been overlooked.

We present the results of a multifaceted study of an antiphonary—liturgical song book—presumably made in Venice in 1607, now in the Ringve, National Music Museum of Norway in Trondheim1. The book is hand-sewn on raised cords, bound in full leather on cardboard covers, originally with metal clamps. The paper block consists of pages printed in black and red that include both song texts and music scores. The red ink is based on vermillion and red lead while the black ink is carbon based. The treads and cords were made of flax. The leather used was made from goat skin. Radiocarbon results confirmed the printing date. The antiphonary shows several signs of repair including the possibility of re-binding. Animal-based glue was used for the repairs as well as for the sizing of both original and repair paper. Two potential periods were identified for reparations, 1670–1710 AD and 1782–1830 AD. This case study was conducted prior to the opening of a new permanent exhibition, Soundtracks, at the Ringve Museum where the book is displayed.

Next Generation Lab turns large and hitherto unstudied urban assemblages of archaeological leather and bone into a laboratory learning experience for high school students. The students, in turn, provide species identifications and thus increase knowledge on medieval and Renaissance livestock exploitation and material selection by craftsmen.

Leather has been produced by a variety of methods throughout human history, providing researchers unique insight into multiple facets of social and economic life in the past. Archaeologically recovered leather is often fragile and poorly preserved, leading to the use of various conservation and restoration efforts that may include the application of fats, oils, or waxes. Such additives introduce exogenous carbon to the leather, contaminating the specimen. These contaminants, in addition to those accumulated during interment, must be removed through chemical pretreatment prior to radiocarbon (14C) dating to ensure accurate dating. DirectAMS utilizes organic solvents, acid-base-acid (ABA) and gelatinization for all leather samples. Collagen yield from leather samples is variable due to the method of production and the quality of preservation. However, evaluating the acid-soluble collagen fraction, when available, provides the most accurate 14C dates for leather samples. In instances where gelatinization does not yield sufficient material, the resulting acid-insoluble fraction may be dated. Here we examine the effectiveness of the combined organic solvent and ABA pretreatment with gelatinization for leather samples, as well as the suitability of the acid-insoluble fraction for 14C dating.

Ostrich skin when tanned forms distinctive and exclusive leather which is much sought after in the fashion industry. Promotion and marketing are focused on its distinctive quill pattern, durability and suppleness. The leather commands a high price by comparison with other livestock leather. The industry in southern Africa is currently export focused with the highest number of tanned skins being exported from South Africa principally to Japan. There are currently many debates on the optimum age for slaughter, skin size being dependent on buyer demand. Skins are subjected to strict grading criteria. Many factors need to be considered to maximise skin yield and quality including adequate nutrition, preventing on-farm scarring and bruising during transport, preventing feather pecking and treating birds for parasitic and arthropod infestations. Stringent conditions during the processing of the skins at the abattoirs and tanneries are crucial in preventing damage and subsequent downgrading. Environmental impacts of tanning are crucial and harmful by- products, including trivalent chromium, must be extracted from the effluent. The establishment of a strategy that ensures improvements in both the local ostrich and skin industry, and in the export market is necessary if southern Africa is to become a global player.

Leather, hide and fur were probably the preferred material for all kinds of equipment (tents, bags, pots and drinking vessels) and clothing in prehistory. It is therefore remarkable that our knowledge of this material is so restricted, and its survival even in suitable circumstances very limited. Palynological data and experimental methods attempt to explain this phenomenon.