The massacres in Memphis in early May, 1866, and in New Orleans in late July highlight the failure of Andrew Johnson’s Reconstruction policy to provide for black civil rights. The massacres are prompted by black soldiers in Memphis, black suffrage in New Orleans, and black claims to equality on both. Racial violence in the two major cities at either end of the lower Mississippi valley symbolize the failure of Johnson’s policy and help bring about Radical Reconstruction. Having been integral to the military outcome of the war and the ending of slavery, the lower Mississippi valley will continue to play an essential role in national affairs – especially with regard to race – throughout Reconstruction and for the remainder of the nineteenth century.

No place was more important to Tennessee Williams than New Orleans, beginning with his first, brief stay as a young man, through the end of his life, some four decades later. He engaged the city through one-act plays, short stories, verse, and, of course, in A Streetcar Named Desire. Williams was able to express his inner conflicts over whether and how to restrain his appetite for sensual experience through the rich array of characters and scenarios he encountered in daily life around the city. As such, the city became something like a mirror in which he discovered his soul, a near perfect fusion of a particular place with a particular artist’s sensibility.