The chapter begins with an introduction to the FDG theory and language model. The discussion includes some of the issues in the classification of premodifiers and compares the distinctions made in FDG with the construction-based model. The second section presents an FDG model of each of-binominal, illustrating how the model captures the differences between these constructions. By doing so, current issues in recent FDG research are addressed, such as the role of CxG like constructions in FDG, interfaces and mismatches between levels, and the distinction between operators and modifiers. One important finding is that FDG predicts the changes of premodification patterns found in Chapter 7. The historical analysis in the FDG frameworks shows that we are looking at the reduction of the internal components of the N-of-N template to a simple NP template, with a reanalyzed chunk [N of (a)], functioning first as a modifier and then as a lexical operator. Therefore, although we are structurally looking at an of-binominal, this term is actually a misnomer

This chapter provides a cognitive-functional description of the lexicogrammar of referring expressions and explains the grammatical realisation of referring, including the functional elements of the noun phrase and the structures that serve to realise them. Perspectives from cognitive grammar are prioritised, since referring expressions are first and foremost cognitive in nature. Given that they are also designed to serve a social purpose, the grammatical description presented in this chapter draws on various functional frameworks to reflect how its use also meets the needs of the addressee. This chapter serves as a basis for the linguistic terms relevant to lexical referring expressions, thereby providing a vocabulary for talking about various aspects of these expressions.

The difference between literary language and flowery prose. Checking adjectives and adverbs are really doing a job. Detail implies significance: description needs a reason. Description should produce an effect rather than draw attention to itself as an effect. Why clichés endure – and why we should beware them. Metaphors and similes – keeping them real. The debate over modifiers. Muscular verbs. All description comes from a particular standpoint. Describing place. When detail is relevant and how much is too much. Chekhov’s gun. Telling details. Showing instead of telling.

‘We all know, deep in our egotistical little hearts, when we have written something that has no function in the text other than to show off what good writers we think we are. We have at this point stopped communicating with the reader and are being self-indulgent: we have stopped doing our job and are doing something else.’

In this chapter, we show that the well-formedness of each phrase depends on its internal and external syntax. The pivotal daughter element is the head, which determines what expressions may accompany it as its syntactic sisters. We observe that a grammar with simple phrase-structure rules raises two important issues: endocentricity (headedness) of a phrase and redundancies in the lexicon. To resolve these two issues, generative grammar has introduced X’ rules, including three key combinatorial rules: head-complement(s), head-specifier, and head-modifier. These rules ensure that each phrase is a projection of a head expression, while recognizing the existence of intermediate phrases (X’ phrases). X’ syntax captures the similarities between NPs and Ss by treating these phrase types in a uniform way. The grammar we adopt in this book (SBCG) follows this direction by using a fine-grained feature system to describe the syntactic and semantic properties of both simple and complex signs. This chapter introduces the basic feature system that we will use in describing the English language. We also examine the patterns of semantic-role expression called argument-structure patterns.