To validate the Food Neophobia Scale (FNS) and determine factors associated with the presence of food neophobia (FN) in a sample of Lebanese children.

Cross-sectional study conducted between July and December 2019.

All Lebanese governorates.

Parents of Lebanese children aged 2 to 10 years.

Out of 850 questionnaires, 194 were excluded. The mean age of children was 5·34 ± 2·20 years (50·8 % females); 238 (36·4 %) had low neophobia scores (≤37), whereas 219 (33·5 %) and 197 (30·1 %) had, respectively, moderate (between 38 and 41) and severe neophobia scores (≥42). All items of the FNS were extracted except item 8 and yielded a two-factor solution with Eigenvalues > 1 (variance explained = 51·64 %; Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test = 0·746; Bartlett’s sphericity test P < 0·001; αCronbach = 0·739). Children who refused initially to eat vegetables (β = 5·51), fish (β = 4·57), fruits (β = 4·75) or eggs (β = 2·99) and higher parents’ instrumental feeding scores (β = 0·3) were significantly associated with higher neophobia scores, whereas higher parents’ encouragement scores (β = -0·21) were significantly associated with lower neophobia scores in children.

FN is common in children. Neophobic children tend to have lower variety in their diets. One of the ways to lower the levels of neophobia is the use of encouragement by the parents. In contrast, offering a reward to children for them to eat a certain food was associated with more signs of avoidance. More studies should be conducted to evaluate awareness levels concerning FN.

To examine the associations between parental feeding styles and children’s dietary intakes and the modifying effect of maternal education and children’s ethnicity on these associations.

Cross-sectional study of parental feeding styles, assessed by the Parental Feeding Style Questionnaire, and children’s dietary intakes. Multiple regression analyses were carried out to assess the associations between the parental feeding styles studied (‘control’, ‘emotional feeding’, ‘encouragement to eat’ and ‘instrumental feeding’) and children’s dietary intakes (consumption of fruit, vegetables, water and sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB)). The modifying effect of maternal education and children’s ethnicity on these associations was explored.

North-western part of the Netherlands.

Children aged 3–7 years (n 5926).

Both ‘encouragement’ and ‘control’ were associated with higher consumption of vegetables and lower consumption of SSB, but only ‘encouragement’ was positively associated with fruit and water intakes. ‘Instrumental feeding’ showed a positive association with SSB and negative associations with fruit, vegetable and water consumption. No significant associations were found for ‘emotional feeding’. Maternal educational level and children’s ethnicity moderated some associations; for example, ‘control’ was beneficial for vegetable intake in all subgroups, whereas the association with SSB was beneficial only in highly educated mothers.

The study shows that both encouraging and controlling feeding styles may improve children’s dietary behaviour, while ‘instrumental feeding’ may have a detrimental effect. Furthermore, maternal educational level and children’s ethnicity influence these associations. The study’s findings could provide a basis for development of interventions to improve parental feeding styles.

To examine cross-sectional and longitudinal (one-year follow-up) associations of parental feeding styles with child snacking behaviour and weight in the context of general parenting, taking into account the multidimensionality of the controlling feeding style.

Linear regression analyses were performed. Parents completed a questionnaire to measure five feeding style dimensions (Instrumental Feeding, Emotional Feeding, Encouragement, Overt Control and Covert Control) and children's fruit, energy-dense snack and sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) intakes. Children's height and weight were measured to calculate their BMI Z-scores. Moderation by parenting style was tested by adding interaction terms to the regression analyses.

Observational study in the Netherlands.

Parent–child dyads (n 1275) participating in the INPACT (IVO Nutrition and Physical Activity Child cohorT) study; children were (on average) 9 years of age.

Instrumental Feeding and Emotional Feeding were negatively related to child fruit intake one year later and positively to (changes in) child energy-dense snack intake. Encouragement was negatively related to child energy-dense snacking and SSB intake one year later. Overt Control was cross-sectionally and prospectively related to (changes in) child energy-dense snacking and SSB intake in a negative direction. Covert Control showed similar associations with child energy-dense snacking and SSB intake as Overt Control. Although Covert Control was also positively related to child fruit intake and (changes in) child BMI Z-score, bootstrapping analyses revealed only a differential effect of Overt Control and Covert Control on child BMI Z-score one year later, with Covert Control displaying a stronger, positive association. Moderation analyses showed that some significant associations between parental feeding styles and outcome measures were dependent on the degree of psychological control and behavioural control.

Instrumental Feeding and Emotional Feeding may have a detrimental impact on children's snacking behaviour, while Encouragement, Overt Control and Covert Control may lead to less energy-dense snacking and less SSB intake. Overt Control and Covert Control have differential effects on child BMI Z-score one year later, which supports the idea that they should be treated as separate constructs. Prospective studies with a longer follow-up may elucidate the causal pathways between the various feeding styles and children's snacking behaviour and weight, as well as the moderating influences of psychological and behavioural control.