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The settlement and, eventually, conquest of southern Italy by the Normans during the eleventh century had greatly altered both its society and its political structures, above all by the conquest of Muslim Sicily. Both in the duchy of Apulia and the principality of Capua the ruler's effective command became confined to part only of his nominal dominions. Dukes Roger Borsa and William lost control of the coastal regions of Apulia, and found it increasingly difficult to exercise authority in inland Apulia and northern Calabria. The growing instability in southern Italy can be graphically illustrated by the problems of the Benevento region in the second decade of the twelfth century. The Pope Honorius II was the unifying force behind the south Italian coalition against Roger II in 1127-28. His involvement stemmed in part from the increasing intervention of the papacy in south Italian affairs, especially after the conclusion of peace with the western empire in 1122.

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(b) - Norman Sicily in the twelfth century

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(b) - Norman Sicily in the twelfth century

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