This chapter explores the genocidal intersection between political history and ethnographic geography in European or near-European regions where the traditional continental empires met the emerging hegemony of Western nation-states. In particular it considers how and why the introduction of nationalism proved toxic in these multicultural ‘rimlands’, with Macedonia and Thrace as illustrative examples. Here the wartime shattering of empires (1912-1948) and their succession by fiercely nationalist competitors resulted in repeated spasms of extreme zero-sum violence whose key outcome was the ‘unmixing of peoples’ by mass deportation, and/or annihilation.

This chapter explores some of the major strategic questions faced by Callwell as Director of Military Operations, including the German colonies, Salonika and Mesopotamia. It also assesses his views of other important issues with which he was concerned, such as munitions, manpower and the army’s relations with the press. The chapter looks at his time as an ‘odd-job’ man for the War Office (1916-18), during which he was engaged in various interesting (and not unimportant) roles. Finally, it examines his later works, especially his autobiographical and biographical work. Most infamous is his study of Sir Henry Wilson, a highly controversial work.