The language continuum is defined by the dimensions of language ability (from language talent to language disorder) and bilingual language proficiency (from monolingual to multilingual) in this chapter. Although the terms “language ability” and “proficiency” are often used interchangeably in the literature, we systematically differentiate these two dimensions in order to explain variations in speakers from different linguistic backgrounds. Cross-linguistic data are presented to strengthen this argument. The differentiation of these two language dimensions is important for professionals to prevent the over- and underdiagnosis of children who come from language minority groups or exhibit bilingual language disorder. A discussion of similarities in language acquisition between typically developing monolingual and bilingual first language speakers and between monolingual and bilingual children with developmental language disorder is included to highlight common features along the language dimensions. Within-subject approaches and different measures of assessment are described to support the classification of children from diverse linguistic environments.

The complex interactions between cognitive control and language ability and those between cognitive control and language proficiency are reviewed first separately and then in relationship to each other, and in association with the development of academic skills and social interactions. Both behavioral and neurophysiological studies suggest that language ability and proficiency modulate the engagement of cognitive control processes, particularly working memory, attention, and interference control. Thus, better language abilities and higher bilingual language proficiencies are associated with superior cognitive control performance, whereas language disorder and low bilingual language proficiency are linked to weaker cognitive control performance. Response inhibition, however, does not show a close link with language skills; children with different language abilities and proficiencies may perform similarly on tasks of response inhibition. Age, prior experience, and variation in task types may all influence these relationships.

Chapter 1 provides an introduction to evolving complexity theory (ECT) of talent development (TD), a new theory that adopts a relational developmental-systems perspective on how talent is developed and human excellence achieved. A developmental-systems theory has to address the questions of what develops, how it develops, when it takes place, where (i.e., social-historical conditions and cultural contexts) it takes place, with each constraining one’s chance of success. Evolving complexity refers to the nature of TD as encompassing biological, experiential, cognitive, and sociocultural aspects in developmental self-organization, resulting in distinct individuality, of which specific talent achievement is a manifestation. ECT distinguishes itself from other TD models in its emphasis on the primacy of action/interaction, and the nature of TD as adaptation to task affordances and constraints. ECT also views TD as the means to an end of creating a productive, fulfilling life, and there are many niches and pathways to excellence within and across domains.

The most important cognitive taxonomy in education is Bloom’s taxonomy. The revised taxonomy has two dimensions. The knowledge dimension consists of factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge. The cognitive-process dimension consists of remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. Other taxonomies expand on these cognitive skills to include social and emotional skills such as social engagement, cooperation, and emotional resilience. Still others add ethical, civic, and cultural dimensions. Developing talent in areas such as mathematics, music, and the visual arts requires general cognitive abilities, mental flexibility, and creativity. Motivation and conscientiousness are also needed to support learning and engagement. Predictors of performances in a sample of more than 6,000 athletes revealed that participation in multiple sports is better for superior performances at the adult level. World-class athletes typically participated in multiple sports, began playing their major sport later, and initially reached performance milestones at a slower rate than their competitors.

Cheryl Foster examines Schopenhauer’s theory of genius, which she situates within a politics of knowledge. Many of our dominant social institutions devalue the arts which are overlooked as potential sources of knowledge. Foster argues that Schopenhauer (despite his own strong resources of bigotry) is in a position to address this injustice by making an argument for the distinction between talent and genius, or conceptual and intuitive understanding, and making a strong argument for the significance and distinctiveness of aesthetic, intuitive cognition. Foster looks carefully at Schopenhauer’s description of the experience of artistic inspiration, the receptivity distinctive of genius that enables artists to create aesthetically significant works. She finds that Schopenhauer has unexpected confirmation in the account Edith Wharton gave of her own artistic process. To realize the potential of Schopenhauer’s analysis, we need to free him from some of his reactionary investments, such as his anti-Semitism, misogyny, elitism, and mystifications. Foster carefully reconstructs a theory of genius and intuitive cognition that is both free from these elements and consistent with the phenomenology of artistic experience as reported by practicing artists. The result is a useful and accurate account of a vital source of nonconceptual knowledge.

Giftedness, genius, and exceptional ability have captured the imagination of philosophers, educators, scientists, and researchers across disciplines for centuries. This chapter charts the giftedness concept through time and across competing theoretical paradigms. Those in the “nature” camp assert that giftedness is fundamentally inborn, while those who prioritize experience or “nurture” point to concentrated effort and practice, along with external opportunities, drive, etc.

Fuzzy terminology, narrow empirical approaches, and the inability to directly observe the mind-brain mean that the etiology of giftedness remains a mystery, and a point of heated contention in some disciplines. The problematics and usefulness of this concept for second language acquisition and learning are introduced, along with the argument for a broader, contextualized, and personalized account of L2 native-likeness.

This chapter assesses five strategies that contractualist thinkers have put forward to conceptualize PSID as active participants to the social contract. These focus on (1) PSID’s talents; (2) their capacity to have a conception of the good; (3) their ability to engage with others or play a part in society; (4) their potential to develop (further) contractual capacities; and (5) their need for assistance by ‘collaborators’ or ‘cognitive prostheses’ in the nurturing and exercising of these capacities. These strategies attempt to ‘normalize’ PSID by modifying the benchmark requirements for counting as a contractor; or by arguing that PSID do meet these requirements, despite appearances to the contrary. While they are promising in terms of its application to less seriously disabled individuals, I find that social support, including ‘mental prostheses,’ is not a plausible solution for many profoundly disabled individuals, unless this support is conceptualized in a way that alters it beyond recognition or takes it beyond the autonomy-based contractualist paradigm to which it purports to be attached.

Expertise bears a great importance in several realms of human intellectual activity. The topic has been addressed in depth in the model domain of chess, with a central focus in the evaluation of the premises posited from the deliberate practice approach, which advocates for expert performance being dependent on practice. A considerable and consistent body of evidence suggests, however, that deliberate practice alone is unable to explain the individual variability in chess expertise. This chapter addresses this controversy by framing these findings in the more extensive nature versus nurture debate. The chapter also explores the cognitive decline in human intellectual activity, which appears to occur in a lesser extent in the chess domain. Two interrelated factors may be highly protective of the cognitive decline in chess: the level of expertise attained, and the tournament activity.

Global organizations demand a heterogeneous global talent pool. For decades, this talent pool has been dominated by what we consider traditional “there-and-back” expatriates, overseas assignees who are transferred to a host-country for three to four years and subsequently return to the home-country organization. To accommodate the pressures of globalization, it is argued that organizations today would benefit from a more dynamic talent pool which is composed of a cadre of managers that includes but also goes beyond the traditional expatriate. We speak of the global manager “family” which in addition to expatriates includes flexpatriates and inpatriates. Together these complimentary pools of talent help to facilitate the development of a global mindset among global managers that is necessary to compete beyond domestic borders. The mix of managers differs greatly relative to the duration of assignments, destinations, number of destinations, and commitment to the organization and career. As a result, we argue that each manager requires a combination of intercultural competencies or a “tool set” to reflect the demands of the assignment type which allows them to be successful in their roles. This chapter draws on a competency-based view to form the basis of the critical elements for building intercultural competency in global managers.

Different views about and conceptions of intellectual giftedness are discussed in this chapter, including the work of Sternberg, Gardner, Renzulli, Reis, and other new and emerging theorists. Four case studies of diverse students with intellectual gifts and talents are used to summarize the challenges in defining, identifying, and providing programs for these students, particularly those from culturally diverse backgrounds and with both gifts and disabilities, called twice exceptional (2E) students. Characteristics of various students with intellectual giftedness are summarized, as are interventions in the areas of acceleration and enrichment, both widely used in the field of gifted education. The chapter concludes with a call for educators to challenge and engage academically talented and high-potential learners, and the importance of the development of a continuum of services in schools, with services focusing both on students’ academic needs and social and emotional needs.