Among the forms of anthropogenic disturbance, agricultural land use is one of the main threats to biodiversity. Understanding how interactions between parasites and hosts are affected by agricultural land use allows predictions of how these anthropogenic impacts affect parasites. Although parasitism patterns are affected by agricultural land use, it is noteworthy that different groups of parasites can respond differently to these environmental alterations. While heteroxenous species need more than one host to complete their life cycle and tend to be more harmed by anthropization, monoxenous species, which need only one host to complete their life cycle, tend to be less harmed. In this work, we evaluate how agricultural land use affects the abundance and prevalence of parasitism for monoxenous and heteroxenous helminths in the generalist lizard Tropidurus hispidus in Caatinga Domain, Brazil. We recorded differences in abundance and prevalence of heteroxeneous (higher in conserved areas) and monoxenous helminths (higher in agricultural areas). Heteroxenous helminths that have lizards as definitive hosts are mainly obtained through diet. Tropidurus hispidus predominantly consumes insects, so it is possible that the lower abundance and prevalence of heteroxenous parasites in agricultural areas, beyond habitat simplification, is related to the decrease in the insect population. As monoxenous species do not need an intermediate host, it is possible that this aspect has influenced their greater success in anthropogenic environments than heteroxenous species. This contrasting result reinforces the need for a separate assessment between these groups when evaluating effects of land use.

The present study provides new insight into suitable microsporidian–host associations. It relates regional and continental-wide host specialization in microsporidians infecting amphipods to degraded and recovering habitats across 2 German river catchments. It provides a unique opportunity to infer the persistence of parasites following anthropogenic disturbance and their establishment in restored rivers. Amphipods were collected in 31 sampling sites with differing degradation and restoration gradients. Specimens were morphologically (hosts) and molecularly identified (host and parasites). Amphipod diversity and abundance, microsporidian diversity, host phylogenetic specificity and continental-wide β-specificity were investigated and related to each other and/or environmental variables. Fourteen microsporidian molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs), mainly generalist parasites, infecting 6 amphipod MOTUs were detected, expanding the current knowledge on the host range by 17 interactions. There was no difference in microsporidian diversity and host specificity among restored and near-natural streams (Boye) or between those located in urban and rural areas (Kinzig). Similarly, microsporidian diversity was generally not influenced by water parameters. In the Boye catchment, host densities did not influence microsporidian MOTU richness across restored and near-natural sites. High host turnover across the geographical range suggests that neither environmental conditions nor host diversity plays a significant role in the establishment into restored areas. Host diversity and environmental parameters do not indicate the persistence and dispersal of phylogenetic host generalist microsporidians in environments that experienced anthropogenic disturbance. Instead, these might depend on more complex mechanisms such as the production of resistant spores, host switching and host dispersal acting individually or conjointly.

Habitat specialists are particularly vulnerable to extinction when habitat conditions are altered. Information on the habitat use of such species is thus important because it provides insight into factors that influence distribution and abundance, which is crucial for conservation. Here, we aimed to identify factors that influence the patterns of presence and abundance of the Endangered volcano rabbit Romerolagus diazi, a rare leporid with a patchy distribution. Through exhaustive sampling of its range in the Sierra Chichinautzin and Sierra Nevada volcanic fields, Mexico, and using generalized linear models, we found that the probability of patch occupancy was higher where bunchgrass cover exceeded 75%, rock cover exceeded 5%, no cattle grazing was observed and human settlements were at least 7 km away. Patches with greater relative abundance were those with similar characteristics, but located at elevations > 3,600 m, and with rock cover < 15%. Cattle grazing was identified as a major threat to local populations of the volcano rabbit, particularly in the Sierra Chichinautzin. Because of the significance of bunchgrasses for this species, the protection of the mountain grasslands is required in both volcanic fields.

There is critical need for more information on the status of forests in Central Asia, to inform conservation management. Here we assess the status and use of the globally important, threatened walnut–fruit forests of Dashtijum Nature Reserve, Tajikistan. We use a mixed methods approach combining a semi-structured interview based socio-economic survey with statistical analysis. Thirty-three tree species were recorded, with Rosaceae the most common family. The mean basal area of the forest was 20.8 m2 per ha and most tree species exhibited stable population structures. Resource use was prevalent throughout the community; most households harvested at least one fruit or nut species (78%), firewood (88%) and grazed livestock (85%). Most respondents noted declines in availability of fruits, nuts and firewood and reported a decrease in the overall area and quality of grazing. Statistical analysis and machine learning identified that distance to nearest settlement significantly affected forest total basal area, tree species richness and the Shannon index, a metric of diversity sensitive to rare species. Our results suggest that conservation management by the government and NGOs is partly effective but there is a need for increased enforcement of grazing restrictions, to prevent further forest degradation.

Marine traffic has both short- and long-term effects on cetacean behaviour, yet fishing vessels present a unique situation as they disturb cetaceans whilst potentially offering alternative foraging opportunities. The Istanbul Strait is a key area for the study of anthropogenic disturbance on cetaceans due to heavy human pressure in a narrow space where at least three cetacean species are regularly encountered. The present study investigated changes in behaviour of bottlenose dolphins, common dolphins and harbour porpoises in relation to the presence of purse seiners using Markov chains analysis. The results revealed increased foraging in bottlenose and common dolphins' behavioural budgets and a decrease in the time spent foraging by harbour porpoises. Moreover, a loglinear model was used to analyse the effect of possible confounding variables on observed behaviours. The only variables found to be affecting behaviour were the previous recorded behaviour, seiner presence and marine traffic density. Consequently, the presence of purse seine vessels leads bottlenose and common dolphins to change their behaviour and are related with a decrease of energy intake in porpoises. The results of this study reveal that there is an effect of purse seine vessel presence on the cetaceans found in the Istanbul Strait with potentially significant impacts on their behaviour, therefore we suggest more research is needed in the area to identify the long-term impacts of these observed behavioural changes.

Understanding factors that influence the spatial and temporal distributions of blood parasites is important to help predict how host species and their parasites may respond to global change. Factors that may influence parasite distributions are land cover and host dispersal patterns, which may result in exposure of a host to novel parasites, or escape from parasites of their origin. We screened golden-winged warblers from across the United States and Canada for blood parasites, and investigated whether land-use patterns or host dispersal affected the prevalence and composition of haemosporidian assemblages. Parasite prevalence varied strongly with study area, and areas with high agricultural cover had a significantly higher prevalence of Leucocytozoon and Parahaemoproteus parasites. Lineages of Parahaemoproteus and Leucocytozoon were genetically differentiated among study areas, and prevalence and composition of parasite assemblages indicated an increase in parasite prevalence and accumulation of unique parasite lineages from the southeast to the northwest. This matches the historical range expansion and natal dispersal patterns of golden-winged warblers, and suggests that golden-winged warblers may have been sensitive to novel parasites as they dispersed. The high prevalence and diversity of parasite lineages in the north-west extent of their breeding range (Manitoba) indicates that this population may face unique pressures.

Leaf-cutting ants are dominant herbivores in Neotropical rain forests, and their colony densities increase in disturbed habitats such as forest edges. However, while it is well-established that leaf-cutting ants profit from changes to the food-plant community, the phylogenetic dimension of this ant–plant interaction remains poorly understood in fragmented forests. We studied diet composition of Atta cephalotes in the edge and interior of Atlantic forest in north-east Brazil (8°30′S, 35°50′W). We applied phylogenetic signal analysis to investigate the diet across plant lineages and performed phylogenetic generalized linear models to analyse the diet in both habitats. We found a phylogenetic signal in diet and in leaf mechanical resistance, which means that A. cephalotes selects closely related food plants with less resistant leaves. Most preferred species belong to Malpighiales, Rubiaceae and Melastomataceae. We also found that irrespective of phylogeny, ants select food plants with less resistant leaves, both in edge and interior. However, ants choose more abundant plants only in edges. High abundance of optimal diet facilitates foraging in forest edges and explains why colony densities increase in disturbed habitats. Finally, by favouring or disfavouring specific clades, leaf-cutting ants contribute to changes in the phylogenetic structure of tropical rain forests, e.g. phylogenetic impoverishment.

Se presentan los primeros resultados obtenidos del estudio tecnológico-funcional de un conjunto de 55 cabezales de hachas o azuelas líticas asignadas al período prehispánico tardío (1500–360 años aP) de las Sierras de Córdoba, Argentina. A partir del análisis de sus atributos tecnológicos (peso, agudeza y largo de los filos, etc.) y de los rastros de uso utilizando aumentos de 20–50x, se argumenta que un número significativo de instrumentos fue utilizado para realizar tareas que involucraron el contacto con sedimentos abrasivos, probablemente para cortar y arrancar elementos leñosos del sotobosque a nivel del suelo. Una proporción del conjunto evidenció rastros de uso exclusivamente asociados al trabajo sobre maderas, como pulido y micro-estrías restringidas a la periferia de los filos. Se concluye que los grupos tardíos desarrollaron artefactos pulidos costosos para cumplir efectivamente con la apertura y mantenimiento de claros en el bosque serrano, ya sea para el cultivo, la construcción de viviendas o incrementar la capacidad reproductiva de plantas silvestres de las cuales dependían, entre otros motivos. De esta manera, comprender la función de las hachas o azuelas tardías es fundamental para discutir las actividades productivas y la modificación antrópica del paisaje propuesta para la región a fines del Holoceno.

We examined changes in a community of seedlings/saplings 10–150 cm tall associated with the presence of a widely invasive plant, Lantana camara and environmental covariates along 67 randomly located transects, in Mudumalai, India. We compared plant species assemblage and grass cover in L. camara-invaded and uninvaded plots in three habitats. Multivariate analyses revealed a significant association of all environmental covariates with plant species assemblage. Pairwise tests indicated that L. camara was significantly associated with changes in plant species assemblage and grass cover within the moist and dry deciduous forest, but not in the thorn forest. The relationship between L. camara and that of elephant browse plants varied with species. A linear regression analysis indicated that L. camara invasion was the only significant predictor of grass occupancy. Our results indicate that in addition to other factors, L. camara was associated with altering plant species assemblage, some elephant browse plants and grass cover in the moist and dry deciduous forest. It appears that L. camara can have a major effect on diversity within this reserve, but whether this effect is by L. camara driving the change or being associated with other habitat change requires further experimental evidence.

Host-parasite interactions are an integral part of ecosystems that influence both ecological and evolutionary processes. Humans are currently altering environments the world over, often with drastic consequences for host-parasite interactions and the prevalence of parasites. The mechanisms behind the changes are, however, poorly known. Here, we explain how host-parasite interactions depend on two crucial steps – encounter rate and host-parasite compatibility – and how human activities are altering them and thereby host-parasite interactions. By drawing on examples from the literature, we show that changes in the two steps depend on the influence of human activities on a range of factors, such as the density and diversity of hosts and parasites, the search strategy of the parasite, and the avoidance strategy of the host. Thus, to unravel the mechanisms behind human-induced changes in host-parasite interactions, we have to consider the characteristics of all three parts of the interaction: the host, the parasite and the environment. More attention should now be directed to unfold these mechanisms, focusing on effects of environmental change on the factors that determine encounter rate and compatibility. We end with identifying several areas in urgent need of more investigations.

Spatial simulation may be used to model the potential effects of current biodiversity approaches on future habitat modification under differing climate change scenarios. To illustrate the approach, spatial simulation models, including landscape-level forest dynamics, were developed for a semi-natural grassland of conservation concern in a southern Italian protected area, which was exposed to woody vegetation encroachment. A forest landscape dynamics simulator (LANDIS-II) under conditions of climate change, current fire and alternative management regimes was used to develop scenario maps. Landscape pattern metrics provided data on fragmentation and habitat quality degradation, and quantified the spatial spread of different tree species within grassland habitats. The models indicated that approximately one-third of the grassland area would be impacted by loss, fragmentation and degradation in the next 150 years. Differing forest management regimes appear to influence the type of encroaching species and the density of encroaching vegetation. Habitat modifications are likely to affect species distribution and interactions, as well as local ecosystem functioning, leading to changes in estimated conservation value. A site-scale conservation strategy based on feasible integrated fire and forest management options is proposed, considering the debate on the effectiveness of protected areas for the conservation of ecosystem services in a changing climate. This needs to be tested through further modelling and scenario analysis, which would benefit from the enhancement of current modelling capabilities of LANDIS-II and from combination with remote sensing technologies, to provide early signals of environmental shifts both within and outside protected areas.

To investigate the influence of forests and agroforestry systems on fruit consumption by birds, we studied two landscapes, one covered predominantly with forests and the other dominated by traditional shade cocoa plantations. In each landscape, we sampled three forest fragments and three shade cocoa plantations. We placed 15 artificial fruits in 25, 1–2-m-tall shrubs spaced every 50 m and evaluated the detection and consumption of fruits after 72 h. We used hemispherical photographs positioned above each fruit station to evaluate canopy openness. We found a statistically significant difference in fruit consumption between landscapes, which means that more fruits were detected and consumed in the forest-dominated landscape. However, forests and shade cocoa plantations within each landscape exhibited similar fruit consumption. Canopy openness was similar between the landscapes, however, the cocoa plantations exhibited greater canopy openness than forests. The results of this study reinforce the importance of the presence of forests in the agricultural landscape. Thus, to evaluate the capacity of agroforest to protect species and maintain ecological interactions it is also necessary to consider the landscape context.

Invasive weeds like Lantana camara have a range of effects on animals such as elephant. These plants are not edible by the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). They also compete for space with elephant food plants and take over large areas of elephant habitat. We tested whether the addition of L. camara to a model consisting of measured environmental variables improved predictions of habitat use by elephant in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, India. Elephant dung density was used to assess elephant habitat use from 62 line transects 1-km in length. Results indicated that habitat and impact of human settlements significantly influenced elephant habitat use at a landscape scale. However, we found no evidence for the hypothesis that the addition of L. camara significantly predicted elephant habitat use at the landscape level. We then tested the association of L. camara on elephant habitat use in the dry deciduous forest (DDF) where there was a significant interaction between DDF and L. camara. In the DDF, L. camara significantly predicted elephant habitat use. We conclude that while no significant effects of L. camara were seen at the level of an entire reserve, at a finer scale and in specific habitats negative effects of this invasive plant on elephant habitat use were observed.

Anthropogenic disturbance in Amazonian forests has increased dramatically since the early 1980s and forest disturbance is expected to continue in the early twenty-first century. Logging and conversion to pasture for cattle are two of the largest causes of forest disturbance and destruction. This study examined the distribution and diversity of dung beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in intact forest and under three disturbance regimes (selective logging, clear-cutting and pasture) in a forest tract in southern Pará state, Brazil. Dung beetles were collected using faeces-baited pitfall traps, then identified, measured and weighed. Principal Components Analyses and the Sørensen's Index indicated that the intact and selectively logged areas were similar in terms of species composition but that the pasture areas and clear-cut areas had substantially different groups of species. Beetle size and diversity (as measured by species richness, Shannon index and Simpson's index) were lower in clear-cuts and pasture than in intact forest. The selectively logged forest was no less diverse than intact forest, and beetles were the same size or larger than those in intact forest. Total beetle biomass, however, was highest in the pasture due to the abundance of small-bodied beetles in this habitat. While the fact that selective logging has a relatively minor impact on the dung beetle community is heartening, the projected increase in the amount of highly disturbed landscape in Amazonia is expected to have a severe impact on dung beetle biodiversity in the region.

Rocky shores occur at the interface of the land and sea. Typically they are open ecosystems, with steep environmental gradients. Their accessibility to man has rendered them susceptible to a variety of impacts since prehistoric times. Access can be regulated, however, and they are more amenable to management than open ocean habitats. This review uses examples from throughout the world to demonstrate the extent to which rocky shores have been, and are currently, affected by pollution (examples used are endocrine disrupters, oil, eutrophication), over-collection of living resources, introduced alien species, modification of coastal processes (coastal defences, siltation) and global change (climate, sea level). These impacts are put into the context of natural fluctuations in time and variability in space of both the environment and the organisms. The relative magnitudes of some anthropogenic disturbances differ between the industrialized, developed world and the developing world. For example, in developed, industrialized countries pollution based impacts should diminish over the next 25 years due to improved regulation and a reduction in older ‘dirtier’ heavy industry. Conversely, in many developing countries pollution will increase as a consequence of growth in the human population and industrialization. Except for large-scale disasters such as oil spills, pollution tends mainly to influence embayed coastlines. Chronic effects such as eutrophication can have broader-scale impacts over whole coastlines and elevated nutrient levels have also been implicated in a trend of increasing frequency of catastrophic kills due to harmful algal. Direct removal of living resources has had major effects on coastlines at both local and regional scales and is likely to increase over the next 25 years, especially in developing countries where rapidly expanding human populations will put further pressure on resources. Impacts from recreational activities are likely to increase with greater leisure time in wealthier regions of the world, and cheaper travel will spread these impacts to poorer regions. Invasions by alien species have increased in frequency during the last 20 years leading to some dramatic effects on native assemblages. Problems associated with alien species, especially pathogens, will continue to increase over the next few decades. The proportion of the coastline modified by artificial structures (breakwaters, seawalls, groynes) will increase because of coastal development and defences against sea-level rise and the greater frequency of storms. This will increase connectivity between areas of rocky habitat. Siltation will continue to increase due to urbanization of catchments and estuaries, and changes in agricultural practice. This may have considerable impacts at local and regional scales, favouring sediment tolerant organisms such as turf algae and anemones. In the future, greater frequency of environmental extremes is likely, including large-scale events such as the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Global change in temperature, sea-level rise and increases in the frequency of storms will affect rocky shores throughout the world, but this will occur over long time scales; over the next 25 years most of the responses by rocky shore communities will mostly be quite subtle. Thus rocky shores will be subject to increasing degradation over the next 25 years. They are, however, less vulnerable than many other aquatic habitats due to their hard substratum (rock), their relative lack of large biogenic structures and to their generally open nature. They are also remarkably resilient, and recovery can occur rapidly due to recruitment from unaffected areas. Their susceptibility to both terrestrial and marine disturbances does make them more vulnerable than sublittoral and offshore habitats. There are considerable gaps in knowledge, particularly of certain microhabitats such as crevices, boulders, sand-scoured areas and rock pools. These have been much less studied than more accessible assemblages on open, freely draining rock. More research is needed to establish the effects of increasing sediment loads, ultraviolet radiation and introduced species on rocky shore communities. Strategic and applied research programmes should integrate field experiments and carefully selected monitoring programmes to verify management regimes. Hindcasting from the palaeo-record would be valuable, to compare rates of predicted change with periods when change was rapid in the past. This information could, in principle, be used to help conserve rocky shores through networks of marine protected areas and a general reduction of environmental pollution.

The emergence of Daubenton's bats Myotis daubentonii from a priory in the north of England was recorded to assess the impact of an annual music festival. Bat emergence was related to measured environmental variables using generalized linear modelling. The temperatures inside and outside the priory were significant predictors of the numbers of bats emerging. Sunset time was a significant predictor of the time of bat emergence. The timing of bat emergence was significantly later during the music festival, but there was no significant difference in the number of bats emerging. The bats left the priory up to 47 min later on festival nights than one would expect them to emerge in the absence of the festival. The results on the patterns of bat emergence were used to make recommendations regarding the timing of the music festival in the following year to minimize detrimental impacts on the bat colony.