This chapter explains how facial expressions of emotions are produced and which physical features of the face convey emotional expressions. It talks about neural substrates of the perception of emotion from faces, addressing the brain regions involved and the temporal dynamics of their responses. The chapter discusses other aspects of faces that are related to emotion perception and elicitation. It reviews two main types of models that have been proposed to classify the facial expressions of emotions. In addition, the role of the amygdala extends to the perception of emotion from other cues than faces. The chapter further reviews the role of the main regions involved in the perception of emotions from faces. It talks about the pulvinar, and then describes the involvement of the regions classically associated with the perceptual analysis of faces. The chapter briefly mentions other cortical regions that have general roles in emotion.

This chapter reviews functional neuroimaging findings in the dorsal and ventral systems, as well as in other brain regions. Multiple functional imaging studies indicate basal ganglia dysfunction in bipolar disorder (BD). The chapter provides a more generalized review of functional abnormalities of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in BD. Several functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have demonstrated primary motor cortex and supplementary motor area (SMA) dysfunction in BD. Functional imaging studies of pediatric BD to date have found evidence of abnormalities of the dorsal and ventral emotional control systems as well as other brain regions also implicated in adult BD. The studies reviewed in the chapter provide compelling evidence of dorsal and ventral system dysregulation in BD. The chapter provides considerable evidence of dysfunction in other brain regions including temporal, posterior cingulate, motor, parietal, occipital, and cerebellar regions. Most studies have examined medicated subjects, which introduce a significant potential confound.

This chapter discusses some of the sexual symptoms experienced by some people with epilepsy and reviews appropriate diagnostic tests and treatments. To help understand why sexual life might be impacted by epilepsy, it discusses the biology of sexuality. Sexual dysfunction may arise in as many as one-third to one-half of men and women with epilepsy. The dysfunction appears to occur because of disruption to the brain regions controlling sexual behavior, disturbance of the hormones supporting sexual behavior, and the effects of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs). Specific therapies can be directed toward specific sexual problems. Treatment will focus on seizure control, including alternative medications and the provision of directed therapies, which may include biofeedback, behavioral medicine techniques, newer medications to improve physiological sexual arousal, and more traditional couple or individual counseling. In sexual therapy, couples practice sexual exercises according to a schedule established by the therapist.