With this chapter, we contrast the mainstream explanatory practices with forms of causality that are processual: complex causality. Complex dynamic systems are used as a framework, incorporating principles such as emergence, self-organization, circular causality, and perturbations. With this alternative, processes themselves are seen as causes, making causality a moving and dynamic phenomenon. We conclude with descriptions of various concrete causal models that can be used to help researchers understand causality via processes.

When engaging in some behaviour, some actions by an animal are more likely to resonate with us as observers than others and those impressions often form the basis for the behavioural markers that we choose for measurement. However, as much as possible, we should view the context from the animal’s perspective as it is what is important to them that guides their behaviour. Of what the animal may be able to sense, some sensations rank as perceptions that are relevant to the animal in that context. Moreover, in dynamic situations, it is often those perceptions that the animal seeks to stabilise. This means the behaviour controls those perceptions, so many actions can be explained as being compensatory. Without knowing what an action is compensating for, actions may be mistakenly abstracted as markers to measure. So, the first principle is to identify the perceptions that are relevant to the animal.

When engaging in some behaviour, some actions by an animal are more likely to resonate with us as observers than others and those impressions often form the basis for the behavioural markers that we choose for measurement. However, as much as possible, we should view the context from the animal’s perspective as it is what is important to them that guides their behaviour. Of what the animal may be able to sense, some sensations rank as perceptions that are relevant to the animal in that context. Moreover, in dynamic situations, it is often those perceptions that the animal seeks to stabilise. This means the behaviour controls those perceptions, so many actions can be explained as being compensatory. Without knowing what an action is compensating for, actions may be mistakenly abstracted as markers to measure. So, the first principle is to identify the perceptions that are relevant to the animal.