This chapter reviews collaborative argumentation, where a community of learners works together to advance the collective state of knowledge through debate, engagement, and dialogue. Engagement in collaborative argumentation can help students learn to think critically and independently about important issues and contested values. Students must externalize their ideas and metacognitively reflect on their developing understandings. This chapter summarizes the history of argumentation theory; how arguing can contribute to learning through making knowledge explicit, conceptual change, collaboration, and reasoning skills; how argumentation skill develops in childhood; and how argumentation varies in different cultural and social contexts. The chapter concludes by describing a variety of tools that scaffold effective argumentation, including through computer-mediated communication forums and argumentation maps.

Chapter 9 argues that the origins of collaborative problem solving can be traced back to mutual collaboration, which built on the evolution of more advanced forms of gestural communication. Elaborative collaborative problem-solving builds on this type of collaboration and requires proximate mutual interaction and sympathy between the collaborators. In contrast, rule-governed collaborative problem solving centers on an idea of fairness and requires that collaborators adhere to specific rules or norms in their collaboration. At least two collaborative cultures were key in the evolvement of this type of collaboration. First, stone tool learning require deliberate practice and the presence of a community of learners with norms. Explicit teaching and individual training built on purposeful activities that were considered valuable, a collaborative culture which over time made it possible to refine stone tools across generations. Second, it is likely that hunter-gatherer groups were important in the development of ideas on equal participation, building on reciprocity and norms that emphasized equal sharing of food. Calculated reciprocity represents a significant move away from the dominance of a few individuals in groups. Equal sharing of food required increased control of emotions and the establishment of norms that kept free riders out. A fair sharing of spoils also permitted role differentiation in groups because not everyone had to participate in the hunt in order to get food.