The study was carried out in selected districts in the Northwestern Amhara, from October 2012 to May 2013. The objective of the study were to undertake on-farm and on-station phenotypic characterization of Fogera Cattle in comparison with two different local cattle population, to characterize the population structure and to identifying trait preferences, breeding management and to recommend breeding strategy for Fogera cattle. Both purposive and random samplings were employed. Data were gathered through semi-structured questionnaire, focus group discussions, field observations, census data, direct count and body measurements. About 126 smallholder farmers were interviewed. About 21 quantitative and 17 qualitative phenotypic data types were also generated from 332 cattle. The Effective population size (Ne) and rate of inbreeding (ΔF) were calculated from the counted population structure data. Both GLM procedures of SAS and descriptive statistics of SPSS software's were employed for data analyses. The results indicated that Fogera cattle were kept mostly for milk (97.62 percent). The main threats identified for the survival of Fogera cattle were scarcity of feed resources and interbreeding with other indigenous cattle, which are less demanding in terms of feed. Fogera cattle population has specific morphological appearance. Generally about 65.2 percent of male pure-Fogera cattle population are having large hump and large dewlap (93.5 percent) with cervico-thoracic (82.6 percent) hump position and long tail (97.8 percent), respectively. The coat pattern of male pure-Fogera cattle is dominated by the spotted coat pattern (82.6 percent) with 43.5 percent white black and 39.1 percent black white coat colour. Female Fogera cattle have medium (94.4 percent) hump size at cervico-thoracic positions (73.2 percent), large dewlap (62.7 percent) and long tail which is well below the hock (91.5 percent). The coat pattern of female pure-Fogera cattle is dominated by white spotted (80.3 percent) with 43.0 percent white black and 33.1 percent black white coat colour Most of the quantitative traits were highly significantly (P ≤ 0.001) affected by breed type. Except horn length and horn space all of quantitative traits for both sexes of pure-Fogera cattle from on-station were significantly (P ≤ 0.05) larger than those of the on-farm. The average linear body measurement taken on a total of 46 male pure-Fogera cattle populations were 42.68 ± 0.56 cm (mouth circumference), 16.35 ± 0.72 cm (horn length), 37.04 ± 1.16 cm (dewlap width) and 129.17 ± 1.33 cm (height at wither). The average linear body measurements for female pure-Fogera cattle were 38.23 ± 0.18 cm (mouth circumference), 13.81 ± 0.37 cm (horn length), 27.20 ± 0.42 cm (dewlap width) and 123.68 ± 0.52 cm (height at wither). The population structure were dominated by Pure-Fogera constituting 37.02 percent, Interbred with Fogera (33.71 percent) and non-Fogera (29.23 percent). The effective population size of pure-Fogera cattle was 4295, with 9016 total population. The average inbreeding level for the population was 0.012 percent. Inbreeding is at a low level and the effective population size is large. The calculated parameters indicate satisfactory genetic diversity in Fogera cattle. Milk yield, colour, power, body size and growth rate of Fogera were the most dominant traits perceived to be good by the respondents. The special qualification of this breed is to live at high amount of flooding areas with adapting other very challenging environment. Pure breeding of pure-Fogera, interbred with Fogera and non-Fogera type of breeds was used for breeding practice with natural mating. The Andassa Research Center established in 1964 as Fogera cattle population improving centre, but according to different source, population viability and population structure indicated that the population are not viable and highly admixture with other indigenous cattle breeds. According to this in order to improve the population status of Fogera cattle we recommended control with open-nucleus breeding strategy. So in order to minimize the risk status of this breed and conserve for the future generation any responsible agent should be given priority.

Individual increase in inbreeding coefficients (ΔFi) has been recommended as an alternate measure of inbreeding. It can account for the differences in pedigree knowledge of individual animals and avoids overestimation due to increased number of known generations. The effect of inbreeding (F) and equivalent inbreeding (EF) calculated from ΔFi, on growth traits were studied in Nilagiri and Sandyno flocks of sheep. The study was based on data maintained at the Sheep Breeding Research Station, Sandynallah. The pedigree information and equivalent number of generations were less in Sandyno compared with Nilagiri sheep. The average F and EF for the Nilagiri population were 2.17 and 2.44, respectively and the corresponding values for Sandyno sheep were 0.83 and 0.84, respectively. The trend of inbreeding over years in both the populations indicated that EF was higher during earlier generations when pedigree information was shallow. Among the significant effects of inbreeding, the depression in growth per 1 percent increase in inbreeding ranged from 0.04 kg in weaning weight to 0.10 kg in yearling weight. In general, more traits were affected by inbreeding in Nilagiri sheep, in which greater regression of growth traits was noticed with F compared with EF. Higher values of EF than F in earlier generations in both the populations indicate that EF avoided the potential overestimation of inbreeding coefficient during recent generations. In the Sandyno population, the magnitude of depression noticed among growth traits with significant effects of inbreeding was higher. The differences in response to F and EF noticed in the two populations and possible causes for the trait wise differences in response to F and EF are appropriately discussed.

Apart from Appendini (1972) for 1900, there are, so far, no Mexican regional GDP estimates for the period before 1930. The aim of this paper is to fill this gap by presenting new Mexican regional GDP per capita estimates for several benchmark years between 1895 and 1930. The paper presents the methodology and sources used to estimate the new series, compares them with the previous estimates and offers a first long-term picture of Mexican regional per capita GDPs (1895-2010).

Literature published a decade ago reflected a pessimistic view of the market-oriented reforms that Latin America carried out in the 1980s and 1990s, and many politicians have attacked these reforms openly. Indeed, the atmosphere is so negative that it would be reasonable to assume that many of the reforms have been reversed. This paper will take a new look at the situation ten years later. Our argument is that the reforms have generally not been reversed. The reversal that has occurred has been with respect to privatisation in a few countries; negative public opinion is also concentrated on privatisation; and the reforms helped to enable Latin America to take advantage of favourable conditions leading to high growth in the 2004–8 boom period and a relatively strong performance during the 2008–9 crisis. While much remains to be done to raise growth and improve distribution, objective information about the reforms is needed when policies for the future are made.

Latin America had the highest tariffs in the world before 1914; Asia had the lowest. Heavily protected Latin America also boasted some of the most explosive belle époque growth, while open Asia registered some of the least. What brought the two regions to the opposite ends of the tariff policy spectrum? We find that limits to Asian tariff policy autonomy may have lowered tariffs substantially there, but by themselves they cannot explain why Asian tariffs were so much lower than the Latin American tariffs before 1914; that natural barriers, domestic political economy and strategic tariff policy seems to have contributed much to the difference and that the origins of Asian post-World War 2 import-substitution policies seem to lie in the interwar years when Asian tariff levels caught up with those of Latin America.

This essay considers the literature on the topic of social capital in relation to the economic science, and opens new perspectives of research in this area. This essay starts with a walk through the history of economic thought that has influenced social capital literature. Afterwards, the reader will find a discussion on different perspectives of research that have been followed up to now and some others in relation with the microeconomic foundations of the concept of social capital, and its connexion with economic growth and finance.

Introduction Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is a crop of major economic importance in the provinces of Malaga and Granada (SE Spain). A field experiment on mango trees was designed to determine the optimum irrigation scheduling over three seasons. The aim was to evaluate the impact of sustained-deficit irrigation (SDI) strategies on fruit yield and quality, tree growth, and mineral status under a Mediterranean subtropical climate. Materials and methods. Three sustained-deficit irrigation treatments were applied to mango trees: SDI-1 (33% ETc), SDI-2 (50% ETc) and SDI-3 (75% ETc). The stress treatments were compared with a control (C-100) irrigated at 100% ETC. The response of fruit yield, number of fruits, fruit size and quality, and macro- and micronutrients in leaves was determined. Results. The SDI-2 treatment proved to be the most appropriate SDI treatment, since it allowed the trees to reach the highest yield (18.4 t·ha-1) and the best water-use efficiency (7.14 kg·m-3). However, fruit size was higher for trees of the SDI-3 and C-100 treatments, since they reached significantly higher length and width. The total soluble solids were affected by the SDI treatments only for one year, being highest in fruits from trees of the SDI-1 and SDI-2 treatments. Macro- and micronutrients in the leaves were affected by the SDI treatment only for the P, Mg and Mn contents. Conclusion The SDI treatment providing 50% of ETC is recommended for mango orchards in order to attain the highest yields and the best water-use efficiency under a Mediterranean subtropical climate.

Introduction. Physalis minima is a widespread, quick-growing and high fruit-yielding annual herb belonging to the family Solanaceae. However, like many other underutilized fruit-bearing plants, P. minima is poorly studied and its nutritional potential is unknown. Since the edible sunberry is said to be a rich source of vitamin C, we studied the physiochemical changes during its fruit growth and ripening. Materials and methods. The changes in the physiochemical properties, such as pH, total soluble solids, titrable acidity, chlorophylls, carotenoids, carbohydrates (reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars, total sugars and starch), free amino acids, total proteins, total phenols, ascorbic acid, ethylene, and respiration and the activities of hydrolytic enzymes (amylase and invertase), antioxidant enzymes (catalase and peroxidase), and cell wall-degrading enzymes (cellulase, polygalacturonase and pectinmethylesterase), were analyzed in the fruit of sunberry at five sequential stages, viz., the young, premature, mature, preripe and ripe stages. Results and discussion. A gradual increase in the pH and total soluble solids occurred throughout the growth and ripening of sunberry fruit, while its titrable acidity increased up to the preripe stage and thereafter declined. A decreasing trend in the chlorophylls occurred simultaneously with an increase in the quantity of carotenoids. As the sunberry fruit proceeded towards ripening, the amount of its total starch decreased, with a concomitant sharp increase in the quantity of its reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars and total sugars. An increase in the quantity of free amino acids, proteins and phenols also occurred during the growth and ripening of the fruit, and the quantity of ascorbic acid increased at the mature stage. Moreover, sunberry fruit also exhibits a climacteric behavior with increased ethylene production and rate of respiration. The specific activity of amylase increased throughout the growth period of sunberry, but that of invertase decreased after maturity until ripening. The catalase and peroxidase enzymes showed higher activity, indicating better radical scavenger properties, while cellulase, polygalacturonase and pectinmethylesterase tended to remain at lower levels. Conclusion. The fruit of P. minima are nutritive and a rich source of sugars, starch, free amino acids, proteins, total phenols and ascorbic acid. They are metabolically active, showing a high specific activity of hydrolyzing and antioxidant enzymes, while the activity of cell wall-degrading enzymes is relatively low, indicating a better postharvest storage life.

This study forms part of a series of works in progress within the framework of the research programme registered at the laboratory of livestock production improvement at the Institute of Rural Development. The aim of this research is the improved performance of the indigenous Batéké hen.

The observation of weights at each weighing indicates a dynamic of significant growth. The chick which is born at 28,38 ± 2,3 g multiplies its weight by 4,2 one month after, gaining 119,3 ± 10 g (td > 3). The males grow more quickly than the females: at 3 months they reach 770,51 ± 94,35 g and 563,9 ± 43,2 g; in 6 months, 1 462 ± 118 g and 993,43 ± 99 g respectively (td > 4). Egg production per clutch reached 13,44 ± 0,2 eggs with a fecundity rate of 78,96 ± 10% and hatchability of 71,7 ± 8,4%. The positive correlations observed were regarded as linear. The conditions of breeding and feeding are determining factors in improving the performance of the indigenous Batéké hen and this is well appreciated by the Congolese population and the Islamic community living in Congo.

Spain’s financial position during the late 19th and early 20th centuries has usually been presented as one of persistent deficit on current account, which resulted from her integration into international commodity and factor markets and this, in turn, slowed down the growth of the economy. In this essay a preliminary reconstruction of the balance of payments on current account allows us to reject this view. In fact, a net capital inflow made possible to meet the demand for investment-boosting economic performance. Current account reversals in a context of macroeconomic domestic imperfections help to explain the economic slowdown at the turn of the century.

Argentina's long term economic performance between 1880 and 2000 (convergence with the rich followed by divergence) can be understood in terms of the economic and political consequences of its peculiar factor endowments. Skewed endowments meant huge gains from trade during the First Globalization boom; but, conversely, disintegration of world commerce in the Depression was a heavier blow for such a naturally specialized economy. The extreme protectionism, characteristic of the post-war period, was related to the country's peculiar economic structure: comparative advantages in food production and disadvantages in (labor-intensive) manufacturing implied that closing the economy was a political winner, though it eventually hampered growth. The road to openness followed in the last quarter of the 20th century would have meant, correspondingly, an increase in inequality. Attempts to moderate it through debt accumulation and exchange rate appreciation destabilized the economy and contributed further to Argentina's comparative decline.

The economic history of Uruguay throughout the 20th century, and more especially its second half, is characterized by a long-term economic decline. From the end of the Second World War, economic institutions and the policies adopted were unable to create a favorable climate for growth and development. This article presents evidence to support the idea that institutional factors played a part in the weak GDP growth and the high level of cyclical volatility between 1920 and 2001. Some factors stand out as particularly relevant: the weakening of governments' political power, increasing fragmentation of the political system, an excessively discretional monetary policy and the existence of opportunistic political cycles in macroeconomic policies.

In this paper I use historical data to analyze the relationship between crises and growth in Latin America. I calculate by how much the region's GDP per capita has been reduced as a consequence of the recu- rrence of external crises. I also analyze the determinants of major balan- ce of payments crises. The main conclusion is that it is unlikely that Latin America will, on average, experience a major improvement in long run growth in the future. It is possible that some countries will make progress in catching up with the advanced nations. This, however, will not be the norm; most Latin American countries are likely to fall further behind in relation to the Asian countries and other emerging nations. Not everything, however, is grim. My analysis also suggests that fewer Latin America countries will be subject to the type of catastrophic crises that affected the region in the past. Latin America's future will be one of «No crises and very modest growth».

A physiological model has been developed to provide a simulation of scope for growth responses of cockles Cerastoderma edule to environmental factors such as temperature and seston parameters. As in previous treatments, model structure consisted of a series of equations representing the vanous physiological processes which are integrated in the energy balance of filter-feeders. Unlike these treatments, however, the present model was designed to give account of the separate processing of phytoplankton and detritus, as components of suspended food that are submitted to differential selection and absorption. In this way, effect of quality indexes based on phytoplankton abundance on growth rates could be explored. Subsequently, we have applied this model to: (a) simulating scope for growth under conditions subjected to variation in the estuarine media, and (b) predicting growth variability as a function of food regime, by comparing two particular estuaries with contrasting seston characteristics.

En julio de 1989 y 1990 se hicieron dos cosechas comerciales de Gelidium sesquipedale mediante arranque y corte, con objeto de observar la recuperación, obteniendo datos que sienten las bases biológicas para establecer un plan de gestión del recurso.

Se observa una reducción de la biomasa del 80 % tras la cosecha, no variando la densidad de frondes y reduciéndose la talla media de la poblacion un 48 % por corte y un 31 % por arranque. Los 3 ó 4 meses que siguen a la cosecha son muy importantes en la recuperación de la biomasa, de manera que en octubre ya no existen diferencias significativas entre las medias de las zonas cosechadas y control. En este período, frente a tasas de crecimiento nulas en la zona control, se obtienen valores alrededor de 1.3 %.día−1 en las cosechadas, mientras que entre marzo y julio oscilan alrededor de 0.9 %.día.−1.

La producción es 1.4 veces mayor en las áreas cosechadas (valores alrededor de 1 100 g.m−2.año−1), mientras que las tasas de renovación son 2.5 veces mayores en ellas (6.8 año−1).

Los epífitos prácticamente desaparecen tras la cosecha, pero se recuperan al mes siguiente, no aumentando su biomasa en relación a la de la control.

The availability of various dietary carbohydrate sources for juvenile giant freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, was evaluated according to weight gain and body composition. Different carbohydrate sources, α-potato starch, soluble starch, dextrin, sucrose, glucose and glycogen were separately included in a purified diet. After 60 days the greatest weight gain was achieved in the groups fed potato starch or soluble starch. The group receiving glucose as the carbohydrate source had low weight gain. Food conversion efficiency and the protein efficiency ratio were higher in the group receiving soluble starch as the dietary carbohydrate source. Muscle lipid consisted mainly of phospholipids and partial glycerides; midgut gland lipids were composed of triglycerides and phospholipids. A change in dietary carbohydrates had a minor influence on muscle lipid levels but caused variations in lipid class composition of the midgut gland. Comparatively high levels of free fatty acids and phospholipids were found in the midgut gland of groups fed soluble starch and potato starch, respectively. No major differences in fatty acid compositions were apparent. Soluble starch and potato starch were efliciently utilized by the prawn as dietary carbohydrate sources.