Irrespective of dynamic topography, flexure influences landscape evolution in many tectonic settings. The shape of a flexural rim flank uplift formed by loading or unloading of the crust, for example, can induce a family of river systems in the landscape including dip, scarp and break-through streams. The strongest evidence of flexure’s influence though is from studies of large river systems in fold and thrust belts which incise sufficiently to unload the crust and form anticlines and in foreland basins where rivers exiting a fold and thrust belt may be redirected by flexure to flow along structure.

Perhaps most importantly, flexure affects structural inheritance and the Wilson Cycle. The Earth’s elastic lithosphere that can retain a memory of a geological event, appear both strong and weak on long timescales, and support stresses of hundreds of MPa ensures that flexure will play a role in explaining structural inheritance. Inheritance plays a major role in evolution of sedimentary basins as they morph from one type to another, in orogenic belts where thin-skin and thick-skin tectonic styles may vary along strike a fold and thrust belt, and in the Wilson Cycle where continents disperse and reassemble and oceans open and close.

Abstract: Variational data assimilation through the adjoint method is a powerful emerging technique in geodynamics. It allows one to retrodict past states of the Earth’s mantle as optimal flow histories relative to the current state, so that poorly known mantle flow parameters such as rheology and composition can be tested explicitly against observations gleaned from the geologic record. By yielding testable time dependent Earth models, the technique links observations from seismology, geology, mineral physics, and paleomagnetism in a dynamically consistent way, greatly enhancing our understanding of the solid Earth system. It motivates three research fronts. The first is computational, because the iterative nature of the technique combined with the need of Earth models for high spatial and temporal resolution classifies the task as a grand challenge problem at the level of exa-scale computing. The second is seismological, because the seismic mantle state estimate provides key input information for retrodictions, but entails substantial uncertainties. This calls for efforts to construct 3D reference and collaborative seismic models, and to account for seismic data uncertainties. The third is geological, because retrodictions necessarily use simplified Earth models and noisy input data. Synthetic tests show that retrodictions always reduce the final state misfit, regardless of model and data error. So the quality of any retrodiction must be assessed by geological constraints on past mantle flow. Horizontal surface velocities are an input rather than an output of the retrodiction problem; but viable retrodiction tests can be linked to estimates of vertical lithosphere motion induced by mantle convective stresses.