This chapter surveys and discusses research methods and research designs commonly and saliently adhered to within the field of intercultural pragmatics. A particular focus will be on data collection methods and qualitative analytical approaches to empirical data, with the guiding question of this chapter being: What are the most saliently trending research methods employed in current and recent research in intercultural pragmatics?As such, this chapter represents a hub among the contributions assembled in thishandbook in that it intertwines with or at least closes contingent spaces between topics and issues discussed across the five strands covered. Thus, this chapter not only falls back on what has been established concerning the underlying theoretical foundations of the field and its methodologies as a whole, but also sets reference points to key issues in “doing” research in intercultural pragmatics. Sections included offer an extensive review of the massive body of literature on conventional and relevant terminology as well as salient aspects of data collection and data analysis in (intercultural) pragmatics overall. The core sections present research designs ranging from introspective, observational, and extracted data to (non- )experimental data elicitation techniques and tasks.

Behavior change interventions have made an indelible mark on addressing problems that require behavioral solutions; however, such interventions also come at a financial cost. Identifying whether the benefits of behavioral changes are greater than the cost of the intervention itself, and the relative return on those costs compared to alternative opportunities, is critical to ensuring that behavior change interventions are truly beneficial and maximize the return on scarce resources. Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA), as a form of economic evaluation that has been widely used, can provide evidence to inform decisions on whether funding bodies should fund these interventions or otherwise. The aim of this chapter is to outline the methods and approaches to CEA of behavior change interventions and discuss the role of economic evaluation in this setting. The chapter starts by presenting a framework for conducting economic evaluations of behavior change interventions. The framework sets out how to identify participants, interventions, comparators, and outcomes for economic evaluation studies. The chapter then outlines the appraisal of CEA by applying the consolidated health economic evaluation reporting standards checklist. Finally, the chapter discusses the implications and recommendations for CEA, including discussion of the appropriate measurement of benefits, feasible model approaches, and issues underlying political considerations when funding behavior change interventions.

Rigorous evaluation of interventions is vital to advance the science of behavior change and identify effective interventions. Although randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are often considered the “gold standard”, other designs are also useful. Considerations when choosing intervention design are the research questions, the stage of evaluation, and different evaluation perspectives. Approaches to explore the utility of an intervention, include a focus on (1) efficacy; (2) “real-world” effectiveness; (3) how an intervention works to produce change; or (4) how the intervention interacts with context. Many evaluation designs are available: experimental, quasi-experimental, and nonexperimental. Each has strengths and limitations and choice of design should be driven by the research question. Choosing relevant outcomes is an important step in planning an evaluation. A typical approach is to identify one primary outcome and a narrow range of secondary outcomes. However, focus on one primary outcome means other important changes may be missed. A well-developed program theory helps identify a relevant outcomes. High-quality evaluation requires (1) involvement of relevant stakeholders; (2) evaluating and updating program theory; (3) consideration of the wider context; (4) addressing implementation issues; and (5) appropriate economics input. Addressing these can increase the quality, usefulness, and impact of behavior change interventions.