Mental models are the internal representations that guide interactions with the world. Mental models are experience based and they inform an individual’s understanding of what is going on, how things work, and how a situation is likely to evolve. This chapter provides two principles for supporting the development of robust mental models in trainees. The Mental Model Articulation Principle emphasizes building training experiences that encourage learners to verbalize aspects of their mental models to identify flaws and gaps. The Many Variations Principle highlights the value of providing learners with a range of experiences with the intent of expanding their mental models to support performance in diverse conditions.

This chapter describes two principles for supporting trainees. The Scaffolding Principle describes how support should be adapted to accommodate a trainee’s current skill to keep them in a “high challenge/high support” learning mode. The Reflection Principle describes ways in which training should encourage active reflection in trainees so they can learn how to constantly reflect on their own performance and apply new insights to future situations. The chapter provides examples of intelligent tutoring systems that employ adaptive scaffolding techniques, along with other types of learning applications. The chapter also discusses strategies for encouraging learners to reflect on their training experiences.