Active inference, a corollary of the free energy principle, is a formal way of describing the behavior of certain kinds of random dynamical systems that have the appearance of sentience. In this chapter, we describe how active inference combines Bayesian decision theory and optimal Bayesian design principles under a single imperative to minimize expected free energy. It is this aspect of active inference that allows for the natural emergence of information-seeking behavior. When removing prior outcomes preferences from expected free energy, active inference reduces to optimal Bayesian design (i.e., information gain maximization). Conversely, active inference reduces to Bayesian decision theory in the absence of ambiguity and relative risk (i.e., expected utility maximization). Using these limiting cases, we illustrate how behaviors differ when agents select actions that optimize expected utility, expected information gain, and expected free energy. Our T-maze simulations show optimizing expected free energy produces goal-directed information-seeking behavior while optimizing expected utility induces purely exploitive behavior, and maximizing information gain engenders intrinsically motivated behavior.

Asking questions is a powerful learning tool that children take full advantage of, as they are well-known to be prolific and determined question-askers. But do children ask good questions? In this chapter, we review and discuss qualitative and quantitative studies to trace the developmental trajectory of children’s question–asking strategies, focusing on their effectiveness and adaptiveness. Previous research has so far established three milestones: children’s question–asking abilities evolve from being able to identify effective questions, but not being able to spontaneously generate them at the age of five, to beginning to generate effective questions from scratch at age seven, to implementing efficient and adaptive question–asking strategies by the age of ten, echoing adult–level patterns of performance. We discuss how the cognitive and environmental factors driving these developmental changes still remain unclear, and how taking a multidisciplinary approach might be necessary to fill these gaps. We argue that the results from research on question-asking have the potential to inform educational policies, and to help design targeted training interventions and educational curricula that exploit the early emergence of these skills and support their further development, providing children with a toolbox of strategies and concepts they can use to effectively navigate the world.