Cochliomyia hominivorax larvae cause myiasis in animals and humans. To register a commercial product to control this dipteran is necessary to experiment on animals. The in vitro test was standardized to evaluate the larvicidal efficacy of commercial topical products. Five formulations were analysed in vitro and in vivo. For the in vitro test, a colony was formed and three replicates (n = 200) of each larval stage (L1, L2 and L3) were treated. The viability of the larvae was evaluated after 5 and 30 min, and at 1, 2, 6, 12, 24, 48, 60 and 72 h post-treatment (HPT). For the in vivo test, 30 bovines divided into six groups were castrated to achieve natural infestation with C. hominivorax. Animals in the treated groups received the product. Myiasis and efficacy were evaluated 12, 24, 36, 48, 60 and 72 HPT. Four formulations tested in the in vitro test achieved 100% efficacy at 24 HPT. In the in vivo experiment only one achieved 100% efficacy at 24 HPT. However, all products achieved the maximum efficacy by the end of study. The in vitro test developed here could be adopted to evaluate the efficacy of topical products for the control of C. hominivorax larvae.

Sheep blowfly strike (ovine cutaneous myiasis) is a widespread economic and welfare problem in sheep husbandry in many parts of the world. Strike incidence is determined by a complex interaction of fly abundance, host susceptibility and climate, combined with farmer husbandry and intervention strategies. Sheep farmers adopt a range of approaches to the type and timing of the management used for the control of blowfly strike, the rational basis for which is often not robust. Here a deterministic model, based on existing data relating to fly abundance, seasonal risk and strike incidence, is used to compare the variable costs associated with different strike management strategies. The model shows that not employing prophylactic treatment is the lowest cost strategy only where strike risk is low. In all other circumstances, prophylactic treatment incurs lower costs than not doing so, because the deaths associated with strike outweigh the costs of prophylactic treatment. Lamb treatment, in particular, has a substantial effect on strike and cost reduction, since lambs are the most abundant age-class of animals and are at the highest risk over the period when fly abundance is the greatest. Early-season treatment of ewes before shearing is also an important component of the lowest cost strategies, particularly when the blowfly season is extended. While the rational choice of the most appropriate strike management strategy is essential in the context of farm economics, welfare considerations lend added importance to treatment decisions that reduce strike incidence.

Fragmented habitats generally harbour small populations that are potentially more prone to local extinctions caused by biotic factors such as parasites. We evaluated the effects of botflies (Cuterebra apicalis) on naturally fragmented populations of the gracile mouse opossum (Gracilinanus agilis). We examined how sex, food supplementation experiment, season and daily climatic variables affected body condition and haemoglobin concentration in animals that were parasitized or not by botflies. Although parasitism did not affect body condition, haemoglobin concentrations were lower in parasitized animals. Among the non-parasitized individuals, haemoglobin concentration increased with the increase of maximum temperature and the decrease of relative humidity, a climatic pattern found at the peak of the dry season. However, among parasitized animals, the opposite relationship between haemoglobin concentration and relative humidity occurred, as a consequence of parasite-induced anaemia interacting with dehydration as an additional stressor. We conclude that it is critical to assess how climate affects animal health (through blood parameters) to understand the population consequences of parasitism on the survival of individuals and hence of small population viability.

The presence of parasites on the farm can be a cause of losses in animal production, and often a threat to public health. A cross-sectional study was carried out in rural areas of the western highlands of Cameroon to determine the prevalence and husbandry-related risk factors associated with Cordylobia anthropophaga infestations in domestic cavies. The overall prevalence of myiasis in animals was 2·80% [95% confidence interval (CI) 1·50–5·10]; myiasis was found in 2% and 4·30% animals in Menoua and Bamboutos divisions, respectively. Eleven farms (8·95%) in total were infested with C. anthropophaga, with 6·41% and 13·34% of farms in the Menoua and Bamboutos divisions, respectively. The relative risk of infestation within each factor showed that the risk of myiasis in animals kept in kitchen compartments without litter was 6·16 times higher (95% CI 1·71–22·29, P = 0·04) than in animals kept in kitchens and house floors. Despite the low prevalence, the burden of cordylobiasis needs to be assessed. It is assumed that the risk of humans acquiring the disease is higher in farmers keeping cavies in kitchen compartments without litter. Farmers need to be educated on control measures to reduce the risk of infestation, which include both sanitation and medical (larvae extraction) measures.

Molecular phylogeography has revolutionised our ability to infer past biogeographic events from cross-sectional data on current parasite populations. In ecological parasitology, this approach has been used to address fundamental questions concerning host-parasite co-evolution and geographic patterns of spread, and has raised many technical issues and problems of interpretation. For applied parasitologists, the added complexity inherent in adding population genetic structure to perceived parasite distributions can sometimes seem to cloud rather than clarify approaches to control. In this paper, we use case studies firstly to illustrate the potential extent of cryptic diversity in parasite and parasitoid populations, secondly to consider how anthropogenic influences including movement of domestic animals affect the geographic distribution and host associations of parasite genotypes, and thirdly to explore the applied relevance of these processes to parasites of socio-economic importance. The contribution of phylogeographic approaches to deeper understanding of parasite biology in these cases is assessed. Thus, molecular data on the emerging parasites Angiostrongylus vasorum in dogs and wild canids, and the myiasis-causing flies Lucilia spp. in sheep and Cochliomyia hominovorax in humans, lead to clear implications for control efforts to limit global spread. Broader applications of molecular phylogeography to understanding parasite distributions in an era of rapid global change are also discussed.

The Calliphoridae include some of the most economically significant myiasis-causing flies in the world – blowflies and screwworm flies – with many being notorious for their parasitism of livestock. However, despite more than 50 years of research, key taxonomic relationships within the family remain unresolved. This study utilizes nucleotide sequence data from the protein-coding genes COX1 (mitochondrial) and EF1α (nuclear), and the 28S rRNA (nuclear) gene, from 57 blowfly taxa to improve resolution of key evolutionary relationships within the family Calliphoridae. Bayesian phylogenetic inference was carried out for each single-gene data set, demonstrating significant topological difference between the three gene trees. Nevertheless, all gene trees supported a Calliphorinae-Luciliinae subfamily sister-lineage, with respect to Chrysomyinae. In addition, this study also elucidates the taxonomic and evolutionary status of several less well-studied groups, including the genus Bengalia (either within Calliphoridae or as a separate sister-family), genus Onesia (as a sister-genera to, or sub-genera within, Calliphora), genus Dyscritomyia and Lucilia bufonivora, a specialised parasite of frogs and toads. The occurrence of cross-species hybridisation within Calliphoridae is also further explored, focusing on the two economically significant species Lucilia cuprina and Lucilia sericata. In summary, this study represents the most comprehensive molecular phylogenetic analysis of family Calliphoridae undertaken to date.

Cutaneous infestation by the human botfly, Dermatobia hominis, results in furuncular myiasis. This condition is endemic to the forested areas of Mexico, Central and South America. However, because of widespread travel, furuncular myiasis has become more common in North America. Misdiagnosis and mismanagement can occur owing to limited awareness of the condition outside endemic areas. To our knowledge, there is only a single report of botfly myiasis in the recent emergency medicine literature, which is surprising since the emergency department is likely to be the place many patients with this condition first seek attention. We present and discuss the case of a 50-year-old man with furuncular myiasis acquired in Belize. Parasitic infestation should be included in the differential diagnosis of a new skin lesion in patients who have travelled to endemic areas.

Ectoparasites of livestock are of great economic and social importance but their effective control remains difficult. The feasibility of vaccination as a novel control measure was established over a decade ago with the commercial release of a recombinant vaccine against the cattle tick Boophilus microplus. Since then, research has continued on ticks and other ectoparasites. While some ectoparasite species will undoubtedly be refractory to immunological control, for others there has been a steady accumulation of knowledge of partially protective antigens, now accelerating through the application of genomic technologies. Nevertheless, progress towards usable, commercially available vaccines has been limited by a number of factors. The number of highly effective antigens is still very small. Although some classes of antigen have been investigated in more detail than others, we have no systematic knowledge of what distinguishes an effective antigen. Much hope has been placed on the potential of multi-antigen mixtures to deliver the efficacy required of a successful vaccine but with little experimental evidence. The application of current knowledge across parasite and host species needs to be explored but little has been done. In most cases, the path to commercial delivery is uncertain. Although many constraints and challenges remain, the need for vaccines and our capacity to develop them can only increase.

The fly, Philornis downsi Dodge & Aitken, was first collected in 1964 on the Galápagos Islands and is now widespread across the archipelago. Virtually nothing is known about the behaviour and ecology of the fly as well as for the genus in general. Here, we describe all larval instars for the first time, and discuss infection intensity and impacts of parasitism on nestling survival of Darwin's finches. Adult P. downsi are non-parasitic free-living flies, whereas the larvae are obligate blood-feeding parasites on nestling birds. The larvae show a marked shift in their host site specificity – a novel finding for the genus Philornis: the first and early second larval instars live as agents of myiasis in finch nostrils and other tissues, while the older second and third instar larvae reside in the nest material and feed externally on the blood of nestlings, leading to blood losses in nestlings of 18–55%. Pupation occurs in the bottom layer of the nest. The combined effects of tissue damage by the endoparasitic instar larvae and anaemia by nest-dwelling haematophagous instar larvae account for the high nestling mortality (76%) due to Philornis parasitism. This represents the highest mortality by Philornis reported in the literature and emphasizes the extremely serious threat this parasite poses for the endemic passerine fauna of the Galápagos Islands.

In this article, a Wohlfahrtia magnifica otomyiasis case, a 31-year-old, non-mentally retarded patient who had undergone radical mastoidectomy previously is presented. Maggots in the radical mastoidectomy cavity were removed then topical treatment was applied. The maggots were identified as W. magnifica. In cases of myiasis, identification of larvae following direct extraction and application of preventative methods is essential.

The authors report a case of myiasis of the middle ear caused by Wohlfartia magnifica Schiner (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). The entomological aspects, the clinical epidemiological characteristics and the therapeutic solutions of this disease are evaluated. In particular, they underline the rarity of myiasis both because of the aetiologic agent and the anatomical site. The therapeutic aspects are also reported and discussed.

Nasal myiasis is the infestation of the nasal cavities by larvae (maggots) of Diptera flies. Several species of flies deposit their ova in the nose and the larvae feed on the host's tissues. We present a case of nasal myiasis by larvae of Oestrus ovis – Sheep Nasal Bot Fly. The larvae of Oestrus ovis are well known parasites in the nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses of sheep and goat. In Britain very rarely larvae may be deposited in the eye, nostrils or outer ear of man, usually husbandry workers. Reputedly, the larvae never survive beyond the first stage with acute catarrhal symptoms lasting only a few days.

This is the first reported case in the UK of an urban-dwelling patient infected by mature, third instar larvae of O. ovis. His nasal infestation resolved after endoscopic removal of the live maggots.

At room temperature (diurnal range 23–28°C), Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis (Fallen) developed from egg to adult in approx. 32 days. Survival ( ± SE%) was generally high (76.63 ± 5.67 for the egg, 80.69 ± 3.20 for the larval and 89.83 ± 3.80 for the pupal stages). Adults emerged over a 4-day period between 07.00 and 13.00 hr local time, with daily peak emergence occurring between 07.00 and 10.00 hr. Their immediate post-emergence period was characterized by a highly active and mobile phase lasting 10–15 min followed by an immobile phase lasting about 1.5 hr. Copulation commenced 4.35 ± 0.43 days after adults emerged and was not preceded by elaborate courtship. After a pre-oviposition period of 12.96 ± 0.47 days, females deposited eggs in batches (1.57 ± 0.23 egg-batches/female) each containing a mean of about 37 ± 4 eggs. Fecundity was 52 ± 6 eggs/female during a mean adult life span of 18.68 ± 1.76 days. Although the foregoing life history parameters are strongly suggestive of K-selected ecological strategy, S. haemorrhoidalis may in fact be adopting an opportunistic r−selected ecological strategy since it habitually breeds in unstable environments.