Fenn traps are widely used in New Zealand for control of small predators. Introduced stoats (Mustela erminea) pose a significant risk to many indigenous New Zealand bird species, and the Department of Conservation (DOC) has used Fenn traps to reduce their numbers over the last 20-30 years. Changes to New Zealand animal welfare legislation in 1999 focused attention on whether this trap killed quickly and consistently and, therefore, pen tests were carried out to assess their killing performance. A guideline for testing traps was developed for the National Animal Welfare Advisory Committee, and to meet the guidelines kill traps must render all ten test animals irreversibly unconscious within three minutes. Testing is stopped as soon as three animals fail the criterion. New Mk IV and MkVI and used MkVI Fenn traps were tested. With the exception of one stoat captured in a new MkVI trap, all stoats remained conscious until euthanased at 5 minutes, and consequently only three stoats were used in each test. In response to these results, a new series of traps was developed (DOC 150, 200, and 250). These killed all 10 test animals, with all rendered irreversibly unconscious within 3 minutes and most unconscious in less than 20 seconds. The new DOC traps have also been tested for their efficacy at killing other small mammals including rats, ferrets, and hedgehogs, which are often captured as non-target species. As these new traps replace Fenn traps in Department of Conservation stoat control operations, significant improvements in the welfare of trapped stoats should result.

Regulators are acutely aware of the need for meaningful risk assessments to supportdecisions on the safety of GM crops to non-target invertebrates in determining theirsuitability for field release. We describe a process for developing appropriate, testablerisk hypotheses for invertebrates in agroecosystems that might be exposed to plantsdeveloped by GM and future novel technologies. An existing model (PRONTI) generates aranked list of invertebrate species for biosafety testing by accessing a database ofbiological, ecological and food web information about species which occur in croppingenvironments and their potential interactions with a particular stressor (EcoInvertebase). Our objective in this contribution is to explore and further utilise theseresources to assist in the process of problem formulation by identifying potentiallysignificant effects of the stressor on the invertebrate community and the ecosystemservices they provide. We propose that for high ranking species, a conceptual food webusing information in Eco Invertebase is constructed, and using an accepted regulatory riskanalysis framework, the likelihood of risk, and magnitude of impact for each link in thefood web is evaluated. Using as filters only those risks evaluated as likely to extremelylikely, and the magnitude of an effect being considered as moderate to massive, the mostsignificant potential effects can be identified. A stepwise approach is suggested todevelop a sequence of appropriate tests. The GM ryegrass plant used as the “stressor” inthis study has been modified to increase triacylglyceride levels in foliage by 100% toincrease the metabolisable energy content of forage for grazing animals. The high-ranking“test” species chosen to illustrate the concept are New Zealand native speciesWiseana cervinata (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Hepialidae),Persectania aversa (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and theself-introduced grey field slug, Deroceras reticulatum (Müller).

Pest management can have substantial impacts on non-target species both within and outside the units being managed. Assessment of these impacts is hampered by the lack of even the most basic checklist of the species present in most systems. The maize agroecosytem is of particular interest because of the large area covered and the intensity of widely varying forms of pest management. In this study a database of lepidopteran species that occur within the maize agroecosystem in the United States was compiled. The process was initiated by developing a list of plants present in maize using published sources and the first-hand knowledge of “weed” experts. This list of plant species associated with maize was then cross-listed with lepidopteran host feeding records using published sources. Finally, phenological profiles and conservation rankings were added. Although our list is not exhaustive, we found 132 plant species in 33 families associated with maize, and 229 lepidopteran species in 21 families that feed on these plants. The database of plants and lepidopteran species can be a starting point for assessment of risk to non-target Lepidoptera in maize from chemical control, biological control, and the use of transgenic Bt maize. The lepidopteran species associated with maize were found to be significantly less imperiled, as measured by their conservation rankings, than lepidopteran species as a whole in all habitats. This finding suggests that rare or endangered lepidopteran species are unlikely to be impacted by pest management in maize. Based on the likely lack of impact of pest management in maize on individual species, future studies should focus on potential impacts on the ecological services that lepidopteran species provide.

This review considers the reasons for, and research governing, the regulation and monitoring of genetically engineered micro-organisms and viruses (GEMs) released into the environment. The hazards associated with releasing GEMs into the environment are the creation and evolution of new pests and diseases, and damage to the ecosystem and non target species. The similarities and differences between GEMs and conventional micro-organisms are discussed in relation to risk assessment. Other issues covered include the persistence of micro-organisms in the environment, transgene dispersal to non-engineered microbes and other organisms, the effects of transgenes and transformation on fitness, and the evolution of pests and pathogens that are given or acquire transgenes. Areas requiring further research are identified and recommendations for risk assessment made.