Evolutionary perspectives on menopause have focused on explaining why early reproductive cessation in females has emerged and why it is rare throughout the animal kingdom, but less attention has been given to exploring patterns of diversity in age at natural menopause. In this paper, we aim to generate new hypotheses for understanding human patterns of diversity in this trait, defined as age at final menstrual period. To do so, we develop a multilevel, interdisciplinary framework, combining proximate, physiological understandings of ovarian ageing with ultimate, evolutionary perspectives on ageing. We begin by reviewing known patterns of diversity in age at natural menopause in humans, and highlight issues in how menopause is currently defined and measured. Second, we consider together ultimate explanations of menopause timing and proximate understandings of ovarian ageing. We find that ovarian ageing is highly constrained by ageing of the follicle – the somatic structure containing the oocyte – suggesting that menopause timing might be best understood as a by-product of ageing rather than a facultative adaptation. Third, we investigate whether the determinants of somatic senescence also underpin menopause timing. We show that diversity in age at menopause can be, at least partly, explained by the genetic, ecological and life-history determinants of somatic ageing. The public health implications of rethinking menopause as the by-product rather than the catalyst of biological ageing are discussed.

In April–May 1986, 180 male and 218 female Glossina morsitans morsitans Westwood, each less than 1 day old, were marked uniquely and released unfed on Redcliff Island, Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe. Flies were recaptured on ox fly-rounds carried out twice daily for 6 months; marks were recorded and the flies released. For females, 56% were recaptured at leastonce; the capture probability for a given 9-day period changed with age, falling from 0.32 after birth to 0.16 by 30 days and rising above 0.5 by 80 days. For males, 57% were recaptured; the probability was 0.21 for age less than 9 days, but > 0.77 for all older flies. The capture probabilities and fly-round catches were used to estimate the change with age in the daily mortality. Female mortality was 6.8% shortly after emergence, < 1% for ages 20–50 days and rose to 5% by 130 days—a pattern similar to that for laboratory reared tsetse. Male daily mortality was 8.3% after emergence, fellto 5.5% by 9 days, then rose continuously to more than 10% by 30 days. The mortality changes are related to age rather than climate. Tsetse caught on ox fly-rounds from a natural population were aged using ovarian dissection and wing-fray analysis. The age distribution (corrected using the capture probabilities from Redcliff) was consistent with the idea that, here too, mortality increased with age.