The study evaluated forage and livestock performance in different grazing systems over two years. Treatments were three contrasting grazing systems: (I) N-fertilized bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum Flüggé) in the summer overseeded during the winter by N-fertilized ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) and oat (Avena sativa L.) (Grass + N); (II) unfertilized bahiagrass during the summer overseeded with ryegrass + oat and a blend of clovers (Trifolium spp.) in the winter (Grass + Clover); (III) unfertilized bahiagrass and rhizoma peanut (RP; Arachis glabrata Benth.) mixture during summer, overseeded during winter by ryegrass + oat + clovers mixture (Grass + Clover + RP). Average daily gain (ADG), gain per area (GPA), and stocking rate (SR) in the winter did not differ across treatments and averaged 0.87 kg/d (P = 0.940), 303 kg/ha, and 2.72 AU/ha. In the summer, Grass + Clover + RP had greater ADG than Grass + N (0.34 vs. 0.17 kg/d, respectively). During the summer, the GPA of Grass + Clover + RP was superior to Grass + N (257 vs. 129 kg/ha, respectively), with no difference in SR among treatments at 3.19 AU/ha. Over the entire year, ADG and GPA tended to be greater for Grass + Clover + RP. Annual SR differed between treatments, where Grass + N was greater (3.37 AU/ha) than the other treatments, which averaged 2.76 AU/ha. Integration of legumes into pasture systems in the summer and winter contributes to developing a sustainable grazing system, reducing N fertilizer use by 85% while tending to increase livestock productivity even though SR was decreased by 18%.

Knotroot foxtail has become more prevalent and problematic in pastures and hayfields in the southeastern United States. Gaps exist in our knowledge of which herbicide practices are best for managing this species in bermudagrass forage production. This study was conducted to determine the efficacy of various ways to control knotroot foxtail in bermudagrass with herbicide applications in autumn, postemergence (POST), with and without also applying a herbicide in preemergence (PRE), in spring. The study was a randomized complete block with a factorial arrangement of treatments and included a nontreated control for both fall and spring timings. Glyphosate at two rates (0.35 or 0.7 kg ae ha−1), nicosulfuron (0.07 kg ai ha−1) + metsulfuron (0.012 kg ai ha−1), and hexazinone (1.3 kg ai ha−1) were applied alone in the fall or followed by indaziflam (0.067 kg ai ha−1) or pendimethalin (4.46 kg ai ha−1) in the spring. Three harvests were conducted throughout the growing season to evaluate weed species (knotroot foxtail, large crabgrass, and horsenettle) and bermudagrass biomass as well as overall species composition. The combination of fall and spring treatments did not affect weed species or bermudagrass biomass. Therefore, treatment main effects were analyzed by fall or spring application timing. A spring application of either pendimethalin or indaziflam increased bermudagrass biomass compared with that of the nontreated control. However, neither PRE herbicide effectively reduced knotroot foxtail biomass compared with the nontreated control, although pendimethalin did reduce season-long knotroot foxtail composition. Spring PRE herbicides are an effective tool for forage producers, but further research is needed to identify effective herbicides and additional approaches for the control of knotroot foxtail.

The introduced meadow knapweed (Centaurea × moncktonii C.E. Britton), a hybrid of black (Centaurea nigra L.) and brown (Centaurea jacea L.) knapweeds, is increasingly common in pastures, meadows, and waste areas across many U.S. states, including New York. We evaluated the effects of temperature, light, seed stratification, scarification, and population on percent germination in four experiments over 2 yr. Percent germination ranged from 3% to 100% across treatment combinations. Higher temperatures (30:20, 25:15, and sometimes 20:10 C day:night regimes compared with 15:5 C) promoted germination, especially when combined with the stimulatory effect of light (14:10 h L:D compared with continuous darkness). Under the three lowest temperature treatments, light increased percent germination by 15% to 86%. Cold-wet seed stratification also increased germination rates, especially at lower germination temperatures, but was not a prerequisite for germination. Scarification did not increase percent germination. Differences between C. × moncktonii populations were generally less significant than differences between temperature, light, and stratification treatments. Taken together, these results indicate that C. × moncktonii is capable of germinating under a broad range of environments, which may have facilitated this species’ range expansion in recent decades. However, C. × moncktonii also shows evidence of germination polymorphism: some seeds will germinate under suboptimal conditions, while others may remain dormant until the abiotic environment improves. Subtle differences in dormancy mechanisms and their relative frequencies may affect phenological traits like the timing of seedling emergence and ultimately shape the sizes and ranges of C. × moncktonii populations.

Cadillo is an invasive species in Florida pastures and natural areas. Despite its invasiveness, relatively few studies have evaluated cadillo management. Thus, the objective of this research was to determine effective POST herbicides for cadillo control in Florida. Greenhouse and field studies were conducted at the Range Cattle Research and Education Center near Ona, FL, in 2015 and 2016. In the greenhouse study, triclopyr-ester, aminopyralid, metsulfuron, 2,4-D amine, aminopyralid+metsulfuron, aminocyclopyrachlor+metsulfuron, and imazapyr+aminocyclopyrachlor+metsulfuron provided ≥80% control of cadillo 28 d after treatment (DAT). Aminocyclopyrachlor at 17 and 35 g ha–1 were the only treatments with <80% control, with 70% and 75% control, respectively. Similar results were reflected in cadillo dry biomass reduction. The herbicide treatments used in the field study were triclopyr-ester, aminopyralid, 2,4-D amine, aminocyclopyrachlor, and triclopyr+fluroxypyr. Most treatments provided excellent control in the field (≥90% control) 30 DAT, and by 60 DAT all treatments provided 100% control. Results from these studies suggest that cadillo is susceptible to many of the common POST herbicides utilized in pastures and natural areas in Florida.

PRE and POST herbicide options were evaluated to control perilla mint, a potentially deadly plant for livestock. The germination requirements of seed from weedy populations were also investigated to better understand and predict emergence timing. POST applications of aminocyclopyrachlor blends, glyphosate, picloram+2,4-D, aminopyralid+2,4-D, and 2,4-D alone provided superior control of perilla mint when applied in the early reproductive growth stage. Picloram+2,4-D and aminocyclopyrachlor+chlorsulfuron also provided soil residual activity and the most effective PRE control followed by pendimethalin and aminopyralid+2,4-D. Seed from weedy populations tend to germinate in a range of night/day soil temperatures from 10–15 C to 25–30 C. Therefore, application and activation of the most effective PRE treatments should be made before these temperatures occur in areas where weedy perilla mint populations are found.

A 3-yr study investigated highbush blackberry control in bahiagrass turf using selective herbicides. Triclopyr applied alone at ≤ 0.56 kg/ha and in combination with other herbicides provided best (75 to 95%) control for up to 52 wk after treatment with minimal damage to bahiagrass turf. Triclopyr formulations (3A vs 4EC) provided similar highbush blackberry control and bahiagrass tolerance. The addition of either 2,4-D, dicamba, hexazinone, or sulfometuron to triclopyr provided slightly better blackberry control, but increased bahiagrass turf damage. Fluroxypyr applied at 0.14 to 0.28 kg/ha provided 60 to 80% control of highbush blackberry 12 WAT. Glyphosate and glufosinate treatments provided unacceptable highbush blackberry control and/or unacceptable bahiagrass turf injury. The addition of oxadiazon for residual control of subsequent highbush blackberry emergence was ineffective.

Several studies have been carried out to evaluate the main drivers behind biological invasions and their ecological consequences. Nevertheless, it is still extremely difficult to acquire a full understanding of the invasion process due to its high level of complexity. The problems that complicate invasion studies are low detection during the early stages of invasion, and the high survey cost of working over large, inaccessible, and rugged areas. The studies that develop efficient tools to reduce costs and time will help to control or mitigate the invaders' damaging effects. Hieracium pilosella is an aggressive invader of grasslands worldwide. The aim of this work was to conduct a regional assessment for the suitability of H. pilosella invasion in the Fuegian Steppe by combining field surveys, spatial modeling, and geographic information system tools. We recorded the invader cover in 167 sample sites and we determined the relationship between environmental variables and the probability of invasion. This was carried out by the selection of alternative generalized linear models. The best model indicates that disturbance and plant community were the main drivers to predict invasion suitability on a regional scale. Therefore, these two variables were used as main inputs to construct a regional invasion suitability map, which identifies the most critical areas for prevention, control, and further monitoring. This approach corresponds to a tool that permits us to evaluate the suitability of invasion even over large and inaccessible areas. The results especially warn about soil disturbance associated with usual management practices in Fuegian rangelands.

Field trials were conducted in 2009 and 2010 to investigate the effects of metsulfuron-containing herbicides on tall fescue growth, seedhead production, yield, and forage nutritive value. Several rates of metsulfuron-containing products and picloram plus 2,4-D were applied to a weed-free tall fescue hay field in the early spring vegetative, late spring boot, and late summer dormancy stages of growth. Compared to the nontreated control, applying metsulfuron-containing herbicides to vegetative tall fescue reduced plant height by 13 to 40% whereas boot-stage applications of these same herbicides reduced height by 28 to 45%. Metsulfuron-containing herbicides reduced seedhead density from 14 to 61% when applied to vegetative tall fescue, and from 53 to 88% when applied at the boot stage. Metsulfuron plus 2,4-D plus dicamba (0.01 + 0.40 + 0.14 kg ai ha−1) was the only metsulfuron-containing treatment applied at the vegetative application timing that did not reduce tall fescue seedheads or yield when compared to the nontreated control. Vegetative-stage applications of metsulfuron-containing herbicides reduced tall fescue yields by 33 to 63%, whereas boot-stage applications reduced yields by 15 to 35%. Picloram plus 2,4-D did not reduce tall fescue height, seedhead density, or yield when applied at either timing. Tall fescue crude protein (CP) concentration was greater in response to the vegetative compared to boot-stage herbicide applications, and vegetative-stage applications of metsulfuron-containing herbicides increased CP concentration of tall fescue by 1.5 to 3.4% compared to the nontreated control. Results from these experiments indicate that spring applications of metsulfuron-containing herbicides can be utilized to reduce tall fescue seedhead production and increase CP content of tall fescue pastures and hay fields, but summer applications of these same herbicide treatments will have only limited effects on yield, nutritive values, or seedhead density of tall fescue harvested in the fall or the spring following treatment.

Dogfennel is one of the most problematic weeds in Florida pasturelands and its control can become inconsistent as the plant matures. A premix of triclopyr + fluroxypyr has been recently introduced for weed control in pastures and rangeland; however, little published information exists concerning the control of dogfennel in pastures with this herbicide combination. Therefore, experiments were initiated to determine the efficacy of triclopyr + fluroxypyr compared with commonly used pasture herbicides on dogfennel at three heights. All herbicides utilized in this study are commonly used for dogfennel control. Dogfennel control was affected by both herbicide treatment and dogfennel height. In general, 0.80 + 0.28 kg ai/ha of 2,4-D amine + dicamba resulted in inconsistent control, especially as dogfennel plants increased in size. Increasing the rate of 2,4-D amine + dicamba to 1.21 + 0.42 kg/ha increased the consistency. Triclopyr + fluroxypyr provided similar levels of control as that of 1.21 + 0.42 kg/ha 2,4-D amine + dicamba. In all locations, control of 154-cm dogfennel was signficanatly lower than that of 38-cm dogfennel. These data indicate that triclopyr + fluroxypyr is an effective option for dogfennel control, but dogfennel height at the time of application is an important factor for optimizing control.

Most tall fescue in the United States is infected with a fungal endophyte which imparts certain advantages to the plant, such as drought tolerance, insect feeding deterrence, and enhanced mineral uptake. However, the endophyte also produces ergot alkaloids that are harmful to livestock and contribute to fescue toxicosis. Because the alkaloids are concentrated in seed and stems, a potential way to reduce the likelihood of fescue toxicosis is by suppressing seedhead formation with herbicides. Research was conducted from 2012 to 2014 using metsulfuron applied alone and in combination with other herbicides in spring to determine the growth response of tall fescue, effects on forage quality, and ergot alkaloid concentration. Clipping or metsulfuron applied alone or in combination with aminocyclopyrachlor or aminopyralid reduced seedhead density by 36 to 55% compared to the nontreated control. Treatments containing metsulfuron reduced spring harvest yield 35 to 61%, but no differences were observed in the summer or year-after harvests. The same treatments increased crude protein levels by 1.03 to 2.14% and reduced acid detergent fiber levels by 1.60 to 2.76% compared to the nontreated control at spring harvest. Treatments containing metsulfuron reduced ergot alkaloid concentration 26 to 34% at the spring harvest, but no differences were observed in summer-harvested forage. Results from this study indicate metsulfuron applied alone or in combination with aminocyclopyrachlor or aminopyralid can potentially reduce the severity of fescue toxicosis and improve forage quality.

The tolerance of bermudagrass and stargrass to the relatively new herbicide, aminocyclopyrachlor (ACP), must be known before it can be recommended for weed control in these forage systems. Field experiments were conducted in 2012 and 2013 in south-central Florida to determine the tolerance of established bermudagrass and stargrass to various rates and combinations of ACP, chlorsulfuron, 2,4-D, triclopyr, and metsulfuron. Overall, bermudagrass and stargrass injury was transient and was minimal by 60 d after treatment (DAT). Similarly, biomass production was negatively affected at 30 DAT when treated with ACP at rates of 70 g ae ha−1 or greater, but was similar to the nontreated control by 60 DAT. Tank-mixing ACP with chlorsulfuron, 2,4-D amine, triclopyr, or metsulfuron did not increase injury compared with ACP alone applied at equivalent rates. Forage nutritive values were unaffected by herbicides. These data suggest that long-term effects of ACP on bermudagrass and stargrass are negligible, and this herbicide could be an important component of weed management programs in these forage systems.

Grazing experiments were conducted during 2009 and 2010 to investigate the effect of herbicide application and subsequent weed removal on cattle grazing distribution in mixed tall fescue and legume pastures. At each location, herbicide applications were made to one-half of the grazed hectares to remove existing weeds and brush. Weeds and legumes were left nontreated across the remaining half of the grazed hectares at each location. Global positioning system tracking collars were fitted to three beef cows at each site and coordinates from each collar were recorded at 1-h intervals for 3 to 4 mo after herbicide application. At each location, broadleaf weeds were reduced from 1 to 51 kg ha−1, and legumes were completely eliminated in herbicide-treated compared to nontreated portions of the pastures. By the end of the season, the forage grass and legume component of pastures was greater and weed component lower in treated compared to nontreated portions of the pastures. By 3 mo after treatment, the cattle distribution was 1.3 to 5 times greater in herbicide-treated compared to nontreated portions of pastures. Overall, results from these experiments indicate herbicide treatment can increase desirable forage mass and thus modify cattle grazing distribution in pastures.

The global importance of grasslands is indicated by their extent; they comprise some 26% of total land area and 80% of agriculturally productive land. The majority of grasslands are located in tropical developing countries where they are particularly important to the livelihoods of some one billion poor peoples. Grasslands clearly provide the feed base for grazing livestock and thus numerous high-quality foods, but such livestock also provide products such as fertilizer, transport, traction, fibre and leather. In addition, grasslands provide important services and roles including as water catchments, biodiversity reserves, for cultural and recreational needs, and potentially a carbon sink to alleviate greenhouse gas emissions. Inevitably, such functions may conflict with management for production of livestock products. Much of the increasing global demand for meat and milk, particularly from developing countries, will have to be supplied from grassland ecosystems, and this will provide difficult challenges. Increased production of meat and milk generally requires increased intake of metabolizable energy, and thus increased voluntary intake and/or digestibility of diets selected by grazing animals. These will require more widespread and effective application of improved management. Strategies to improve productivity include fertilizer application, grazing management, greater use of crop by-products, legumes and supplements and manipulation of stocking rate and herbage allowance. However, it is often difficult to predict the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of such strategies, particularly in tropical developing country production systems. Evaluation and on-going adjustment of grazing systems require appropriate and reliable assessment criteria, but these are often lacking. A number of emerging technologies may contribute to timely low-cost acquisition of quantitative information to better understand the soil–pasture–animal interactions and animal management in grassland systems. Development of remote imaging of vegetation, global positioning technology, improved diet markers, near IR spectroscopy and modelling provide improved tools for knowledge-based decisions on the productivity constraints of grazing animals. Individual electronic identification of animals offers opportunities for precision management on an individual animal basis for improved productivity. Improved outcomes in the form of livestock products, services and/or other outcomes from grasslands should be possible, but clearly a diversity of solutions are needed for the vast range of environments and social circumstances of global grasslands.

In order to study the effect of grazing pastures with a different botanical composition on rumen and intramuscular fatty acid metabolism, 21 male lambs were assigned to three botanically different pastures: botanically diverse (BD) (consisting for 65% of a variety of grass species); Leguminosa rich (L) (consisting for 61% of Leguminosae) and intensive English ryegrass (IR) (with 69% Lolium perenne). Pastures were sampled weekly for 12 weeks for analysis of their fatty acid content and composition and on nine occasions to determine the botanical composition. Ruminal and abomasal contents were sampled at slaughter and muscle and subcutaneous fat 24 h after slaughter. All samples were prepared and analysed for fatty acid composition. The L pasture showed a higher fatty acid content (29.8 mg/g dry matter (DM) v. 18.5 and 25.5 mg/g DM, for BD and IR pastures, respectively), but the sum of the proportions of the major polyunsaturated fatty acids, C18:2 n-6 and C18:3 n-3, were similar for the three pastures (69.9, 69.4 and 71.1% of fatty acids methyl esters (FAME) for BD, L and IR pastures, respectively). The BD pasture was richer in C18:2 n-6 (18.2% of FAME), while IR pasture had a higher C18:3 n-3 content (57.2% of FAME). Rumen data showed that animals grazing the BD pasture presented higher proportions of biohydrogenation intermediates, mainly C18:1 t11, C18:2 t11c15 and CLA c9t11, suggesting an inhibition of biohydrogenation. These changes were associated with shifts in the rumen microbial population as indicated by differences in the rumen pattern of volatile fatty acids, microbial odd- and branched-chain fatty acids. In L pasture animals, the content of C18:2 n-6 and C18:3 n-3 in the abomasum and subcutaneous fat was higher. Finally, higher proportions of C20:4 n-6, C20:5 n-3 and C22:5 n-3 and higher indices for elongation and desaturation activity in the intramuscular fat of BD grazing animals suggest some stimulation of elongation and desaturation of long-chain fatty acids, although this also might have been provoked partially by reduced fat deposition (due to a lower growth rate of the animals).

Production and endoparasitism of first grazing season Holstein heifers and steers were investigated over two grazing seasons. Studies were conducted on low-lying peaty soil. In year 2000, 40 animals were included in a 2×2 factorial, replicated experiment with two sexes (steers v. heifers) and two stocking rates (SR): normal v. low (840 v. 420 kg live weight per ha at turn-out) in a set stocking grazing system. Mean grass heights over the entire season were 6·3±4·8 cm (mean±s.d.) at normal SR and 9·8±6·1 cm at low SR. Mean daily live-weight gain during grazing was significantly (P<0·001) lower at normal SR (256±147 g) compared with low (468±142 g) but sex did not significantly affect the daily gain. Serum pepsinogen levels, indicating uptake of gastric nematodes, were higher at normal SR and consistently higher in steers compared with heifers, although not significantly. In 2001 the experiment included 80 animals in a 2×2 factorial experiment with two sexes (steers v. heifers), two grazing systems (set stocking and two-paddock rotation) and four replicates. Pasture quality was low, 570 g digestible organic matter per kg organic matter and 139 g crude protein per kg dry matter on average, independent of grazing system. Mean daily live-weight gain was not significantly affected by grazing system. A tendency (P=0·07) to lower daily gain for the heifers than for steers was observed (427±161 g v. 474±138 g). Lower levels of pasture contamination with parasites were observed in the paddocks without grazing up to mid July but otherwise rotation did not prevent parasite infections. It is concluded that first grazing season steers and heifers have the same potential for growth when grazing marginal areas with low pasture quality. Set stocking or the two-paddock rotation scheme did not affect productivity or level of parasite infection at the end of season. Parasite infections became a problem at high SR. SR is an important factor for both daily live-weight gain per animal and total production per ha. However, due to the very heterogeneous structure of marginal areas there is a need for other indicators than kg live weight per ha at turn-out in order to define a clear relationship between stocking rate and production.

Twenty pregnant Comisana ewes were divided into two groups of 10. One group was allowed to graze a vetch pasture (grass). The second group of animals was housed collectively in a pen and was given hay and concentrates (concentrate). After lambing, all the ewes were allowed to stay with the respective lambs between 18:00 h and 07:00 h of the following day in two different pens. Therefore all the lambs were raised exclusively on maternal milk. The lambs were slaughtered at 38 days of age. Milk and lamb meat (longissimus dorsi muscle) fatty acids were analysed. Ewes on grass produced milk with a lower (P < 0·001) proportion of saturated fatty acids and with a higher proportion of both monounsaturated (P < 0·05) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (P < 0·01) than ewes given concentrates. Trans-vaccenic acid was significantly higher (P < 0·001) in milk from grass-fed animals compared with ewes given concentrates. Linoleic acid (C18: 2 n-6) tended to be higher (P = 0·06) in milk from ewes on concentrates while linolenic acid (C18: 3 n-3) was significantly higher (P < 0·001) in milk from animals grazing pasture. Conjugated linoleic acid (cis-9, trans-11 C18: 2) was almost double in milk from grass-fed ewes compared with animals given concentrates (P < 0·001). Regarding lamb tissue, trans-vaccenic acid (C18: 1 trans-11) was higher (P = 0·01) in the fat from lambs raised by grazing ewes. Linoleic acid (C18: 2 n-6) was at higher concentration (P < 0·001) in the fat from lambs raised by ewes given concentrates. Linolenic acid (C18: 3 n-3) was increased three-fold (P < 0·001) in the fat of lambs from the grass group compared with lambs suckled by ewes given concentrates. The isomer cis-9, trans-11 of conjugated linoleic acid was present at double concentration (P < 0·001) in the fat from animals raised by grazing ewes. Eicosapentaenoic (C20: 5 n-3; EPA) and docosaesaenoic (C22: 6 n-3; DHA) acids were higher (respectively P < 0·001 and P = 0·01) in the intramuscular fat from lambs from the grass group compared with animals from the concentrate group. The n-6/n-3 ratio was lower (P < 0·001) in the meat from lambs raised by grazing ewes. Overall this trial showed that ewe feeding system strongly affects intramuscular fatty acids even in lambs raised exclusively on maternal milk.

Conflicts between local people and protected area managers are a common problem in developing countries, but in many cases there has been little attempt to comprehensively characterize the underlying problems. Resource uses, management practices, economy and people's perceptions of problems and likely solutions were analysed in two villages near and two villages away from the core zone of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve in the Indian Himalaya. Agriculture, although practised on less than 1% of the area, was the primary occupation of local people. Six annual crops of a total of 22 and all four horticultural crops on private farms were damaged by wildlife, but Reserve management provided compensation only for livestock killing by wildlife and compensation amounted to only 4–10% of the total assessed monetary value of killed livestock. A variety of wild plant products were used locally but 27 were marketed by more than 50% of surveyed families; income from wild products was substantially lower than that from crops and livestock. A sociocultural change from a subsistence to a market economy, together with changes in traditional land/resource rights and institutions, has led to a number of changes in land-use and management practices. The livestock population has declined, agricultural area has remained the same and people have started cultivating medicinal species in the last 20 years. These changes seem complementary to the goal of conservation. However, changes such as abandonment of some traditional food crops and stress on cash crops lacking fodder value, requiring substantial manure inputs derived from forest litter and livestock excreta, and causing severe soil erosion, seem to counter the goal of environmental conservation. Some government-managed Reserve Forest sites were similar to the Community Forests in terms of species richness, basal area and soil physico-chemical properties. Two Reserve Forest sites showed basal areas of 160.5–191.5 m2/ha, exceeding the highest values reported so far from the region. The formal institutional framework of resource management seems to be not as effective as the traditional informal system. The Reserve Management Plan lays more emphasis on legal protection than on the sustainable livelihood of local communities and has led to conflicts between local people and reserve managers. Plantation of fodder and medicinal species in degraded forest lands, suppression of economic exploitation of local people in the market, enhancement of local knowledge of the economic potential of biodiversity, incentives for cultivation of crops with comparative advantages and lesser risks of damage by wildlife, and rejuvenation of the traditional involvement of the whole village community in decison-making, could be the options for resolving conflicts between people and protected areas in this case.

Cutworms, semiloopers, budworms and armyworms in the genera Agrotis, Chrysodeixis, Heliothis, Mythimna, Persectania and Spodoptera are important pasture and crop pests in Australia. They comprise both cosmopolitan species, such as A. ipsilon, H. armigera, M. separata and S. exempta and endemic species such as A. infusa, H. punctigera, M. convecta, P. ewingii and P. dyscrita. Although the cosmopolitan species are major pests of parts of Asia and Africa, they are, with the exception of H. armigera, less important agricultural pests in Australia than their endemic counterparts. The latter are widely distributed outside cropping areas, because they breed on a wide range of native host plants as well as on introduced crops and pastures and also have the potential to invade cropping areas from native habitats. The cosmopolitan species are largely confined to tropical and subtropical summer crops and improved pastures of north and east Australia where chronic infestations often develop although major outbreaks and migration out of cropping areas are rare. Periodic outbreaks of endemic species result from an unusually favourable growth of vegetation in early autumn, following drought-breaking rains in the inland. Moths arrive in the rain-affected areas as a result of migration and concentration by rain-bearing troughs and depressions. Southward migration of their progeny occurs in spring on warm northerly airflows produced ahead of eastward-moving cold fronts and results in invasions of temperate crops and pastures. Migration also occurs in anticyclonic conditions, resulting in an extensive redistribution of populations and is adapted to the erratic distribution of rainfall in inland Australia. Among cosmopolitan species, only Spodoptera spp. cause outbreaks which are infrequent and occur with the onset of summer rains in coastal and sub-coastal areas. Most movements of cosmopolitan species are confined within cropping areas although migration from coastal to inland crops, under the influence of prevailing SE winds, and in frontal systems, troughs and storm outflows, is also suspected.