The leaf-eating caterpillar, Opisina arenosella Walker, is the most destructive pest of coconut palm in India and Southeast Asia. The management practices employed against O. arenosella so far have been unsuccessful in many instances in India, due to the pest behaviour and coconut palm phenology. The life cycle, incidence and behaviour of O. arenosella are rather interesting and useful for the intervention of pheromone trapping technique for its management. We conducted the present study with the intention of identifying the female sex pheromone of O. arenosella and testing its efficacy under field conditions. Gas chromatography coupled electroantennographic detection (GC–EAD) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis of female pheromone glands extract of one-day-old O. arenosella females confirmed the presence of (Z,Z,Z)-3,6,9-tricosatriene (Z3Z6Z9-23Hy) as the dominant sex pheromone component. The male antennal response to female pheromone gland extract and synthetic Z3Z6Z9-23Hy was recorded using GC–EAD, and the results revealed that antennal response was positive to both the treatments at 0.13 mV and 0.14 mV respectively, compared to control (air), which was 0.016 mV. It was also evident from wind-tunnel experiments that the male moth response was high (80%) with the female gland extract, compared to 60% with synthetic pheromone and 0% for control (air). Male moths caught in the traps with and without lure were assessed in two field sites and recorded 69.26% and 54.25% more moth catches in the traps with the lure. We also observed a similar result in the cage experiment in which male moths caught in the traps with and without lure were 64.50% and 12.40%, respectively. The study also confirmed that 93.20% moths caught in the pheromone-baited traps were male. From the study, it is evident that the presence of (Z,Z,Z)-3,6,9-tricosatriene, which is the sex pheromone compound from the female gland extract of O. arenosella, is an effective attractant in pheromone traps for the male moth under field conditions.

Cacao mirids (Sahlbergella singularis, Distantiella theobroma and Bryocoropsis laticollis) were captured in pheromone traps releasing a 2:1 blend of the sex pheromone components of the two first named species in a series of five experiments on cacao (Theobroma cacao) plantations in Ghana. A total of 835 cacao mirids were caught, all male, 95% of which were S. singularis, 3% D. theobroma and 2% B. laticollis. Two sticky trap and two water trap designs made from locally available materials were as effective for capturing S. singularis and total mirids as the best sticky trap from previously reported studies. Coating the outer surface of a large water trap with sticker increased the catch 4.4×, and 2.7× for a cylindrical sticky trap. Sticker on the outside of the water trap also increased the inside catch of S. singularis by 76% and total mirids by 71%. The numbers of S. singularis and D. theobroma trapped increased with increasing trap elevation and were highest around canopy level. Those traps caught an average 12× more mirids than traps at 1.8 m, the height recommended currently. Therefore, large water traps coated with sticker and aligned with the cacao canopy should raise the current capture rates of pheromone traps for cacao mirids about 50×, which may be sufficient for effective pest management by mass trapping without synthetic insecticides.

The sex pheromone of Stenoma catenifer was evaluated in commercial avocado orchards in Guatemala to determine operational parameters, such as optimal lure type, trap height, trap density and estimates of the distances that male moths fly. Of four pheromone dispensers tested, gray and white rubber septa were of equal efficacy, whereas 1-ml low-density polyethylene vials and 2×3-cm polyethylene ziplock bags were least efficacious. The height at which wing traps were hung did not significantly affect the number of adult male S. catenifer captured. For monitoring S. catenifer, these data suggest that the pheromone should be dispensed from gray rubber septa in wing traps hung inside the tree canopy at 1.75 m, a height convenient for trap placement and monitoring. Mark-recapture studies of male S. catenifer indicated that, on average, males flew 67 m in one night. However, it is likely that this is an underestimate of the distance that male moths are capable of flying in a single night. Probabilistic modeling of S. catenifer capture data from different numbers of pheromone traps deployed in seven commercial avocado orchards of varying sizes and infestation levels suggested that 10–13 randomly deployed traps per orchard for a 7-day period are needed to detect at least one male S. catenifer with 90% confidence. These data provide sufficient information to develop effective protocols for using the S. catenifer pheromone to detect and monitor this pest in countries with endemic populations that are exporting fresh avocados, and for quarantine detection and incursion monitoring in countries receiving avocado imports from high risk areas.

Light and pheromone trap networks were used to monitor and compare moth catches ofHelicoverpa (= Heliothis) armigera (Hubner) in both types of traps at many locations across India. There were obvious changes with latitude in flight patterns and in the correlation between light and pheromone trap catches. At northern locations, the correlation between light and pheromone trap catches were higher as compared to southern locations. The traps located in the central part of India showed correlations, intermediate between those of northern and southern locations. Pheromone traps were thus found suitable for monitoring at northern and central locations. At southern locations, where light and pheromone trap catches differ considerably at different times of the year, both types of traps should be operated simultaneously for better monitoring of this insect. Good correlations were found between larval population and light and pheromone trap catches of H. armigera at Patancheru, one of the southern locations in India.

A pheromone trap network was used to study the temporal and spatial variations in the abundance of the pod borer, Helicoverpa (= Heliothis) armigera (Hubner) in India. The pattern of pheromone trap catches of Helicoverpa armigera was similar within any given agroclimatic zone but there were also obvious changes with latitude in patterns of trap catches. The catches were generally higher and had more sharply defined peaks, at northern locations than at southern locations. The catches at the eastern locations were lower than those elsewhere. The practical applications of this information for pest control are discussed.

Light and pheromone traps were compared for their relative efficiecy and importance in monitoring the Heliothis armigera (Hubner) moths at the farm of Rajasthan Agriculture University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India, during the years 1984/85 (4 June 1984 to 3 June 1985) and 1985/86 (4 June 1985 to 3 June 1986). Both kinds of traps showed three periods of moth activity during both the cropping years. Both types of traps showed almost a similar trend in population fluctuation during the cropping years and there were significant positive correlations between light and pheromone trap catches, (r=0.87 for 1984/85 and r=0.93 for 1985/86). However, pheromone traps had many advantages over light trap in monitoring the Heliothis armigera moths.

Preliminary studies on the population of the legume pod-borer Maruca testulalis Geyer, using a pheromone trap at Mbita Point on the shores of Lake Victoria, showed that female moths produce a pheromone which attracts males. It was found that the peak catch of males occurred on the third night of female emergence, but after the fifth night the females were not attractive to males. This finding is regarded as significant in terms of studies on the population dynamics of M. testulalis.