The widespread species Parmotrema crinitum (Ach.) M. Choisy and Parmotrema perlatum (Huds.) M. Choisy are mainly distinguished by their reproductive strategies. While P. crinitum propagates by isidia, P. perlatum produces soredia. In this study, we aim to evaluate the phylogenetic relationship between both species and to critically examine their species boundaries. To this purpose, 46 samples belonging to P. crinitum and P. perlatum were used in our analysis, including 22 for which we studied the morphology and chemistry, before extracting their DNA. We used 35 sequences of the internal transcribed spacer region of nuclear ribosomal DNA (ITS) of Parmotrema perlatum from Europe and Africa (20 of which were newly generated), and 11 of Parmotrema crinitum from Europe, North America and North Africa (two newly generated). Additionally, 28 sequences of several species from Parmotrema were included in the ITS dataset. The ITS data matrix was analyzed using different approaches, such as traditional phylogeny (maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses), genetic distances, automatic barcode gap discovery (ABGD) and the coalescent-based method poisson tree processes (PTP), in order to test congruence among results. Our results indicate that all samples referred to P. crinitum and P. perlatum nested in a well-supported monophyletic clade, but phylogenetic relationships among them remain unresolved. Delimitations inferred from PTP, ABGD and genetic distance analyses were comparable and suggested that P. crinitum and P. perlatum belong to the same lineage. Interestingly, two samples of P. perlatum separate in a different monophyletic clade, which is supported as a different lineage by all the analyses.

The order Chiroptera is considered the second largest group of mammals in the world, hosting important zoonotic virus and bacteria. Bartonella and hemotropic mycoplasmas are bacteria that parasite different mammals’ species, including humans, causing different clinical manifestations. The present work aimed investigating the occurrence and assessing the phylogenetic positioning of Bartonella spp. and Mycoplasma spp. in neotropical bats sampled from Brazil. Between December 2015 and April 2016, 325 blood and/or tissues samples were collected from 162 bats comprising 19 different species sampled in five states of Brazil. Out of 322 bat samples collected, while 17 (5·28%) were positive to quantitative PCR for Bartonella spp. based on nuoG gene, 45 samples (13·97%) were positive to cPCR assays for hemoplasmas based on 16S rRNA gene. While seven sequences were obtained for Bartonella (nuoG) (n = 3), gltA (n = 2), rpoB (n = 1), ftsZ (n = 1), five 16S rRNA sequences were obtained for hemoplasmas. In the phylogenetic analysis, the Bartonella sequences clustered with Bartonella genotypes detected in bats sampled in Latin America countries. All five hemoplasmas sequences clustered together as a monophyletic group by Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Inference analyses. The present work showed the first evidence of circulation of Bartonella spp. and hemoplasmas among bats in Brazil.

The blood parasites from the genus Hepatozoon Miller, 1908 (Apicomplexa: Adeleida: Hepatozoidae) represent the most common intracellular protozoan parasites found in snakes. In the present study, we examined 209 individuals of snakes, from different zoogeographical regions (Africa, America, Asia and Europe), for the occurrence of blood parasites using both molecular and microscopic examination methods, and assess phylogenetic relationships of all Hepatozoon parasites from snakes for the first time. In total, 178 blood smears obtained from 209 individuals, representing 40 species, were examined, from which Hepatozoon unicellular parasites were found in 26 samples (14·6% prevalence). Out of 180 samples tested by molecular method polymerase chain reaction (PCR), the presence of parasites was observed in 21 individuals (prevalence 11·6%): 14 snakes from Africa belonging to six genera (Dendroaspis, Dispholidus, Mehelya, Naja, Philothamnus and Python), five snakes from Asia from the genus Morelia and two snakes from America, from two genera (Coluber and Corallus). The intensity of infection varied from one to 1433 infected cells per 10 000 erythrocytes. Results of phylogenetic analyses (Bayesian and Maximum Likelihood) revealed the existence of five haplotypes divided into four main lineages. The present data also indicate neither geographical pattern of studied Hepatozoon sp., nor congruency in the host association.

Primers are presented to amplify an intron-containing portion of the actin type I locus from Asterochloris algae. The amount of variation and phylogenetic resolution provided by the ITS rDNA are compared with that from the actin locus. The number of variable and parsimony-informative sites within the actin locus was drastically higher than that of the ITS. Phylogenetic analyses of the ITS resulted in poorly resolved trees with low support values. In contrast, phylogenetic analyses of the actin locus yielded trees with better support and resolution. It is concluded that the actin type I introns will be useful for studies investigating species concepts and population genetics.

Three locomotor modes were examined (sprinting, jumping and climbing) in eight species of skinks: seven Niveoscincus spp. and Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii. These species formed four distinct ecological types: ground-dwelling, arboreal, heath/rock dwelling, and saxicolous. Significant behavioural preferences for particular escape modes in the field were found, which reflected the performance capabilities at an animal in the laboratory. This study used both non-phylogenetic and evolutionary based analyses to demonstrate that species occupying different microhabitats and using different escape tactics exhibit corresponding differences in performance abilities. Four Niveoscincus species are specialized in performance abilities and behavioural responses (N. greeni, N. ocellatus, N. pretiosus, N. orocryptus) by excelling in some performance abilities but having behavioural restrictions at attemping other locomotor modes. Only N. microlepidotus and N. orocryptus used escape tactics opportunistically; these species possess a suite of behavioural responses that may reflect the wide range of microhabitats they occupy. Ground-dwelling species N. metallicus, N. coventryi and Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii performed poorly at all performance abilities and seemed to have biomechanical limitations, rather than behavioural restrictions, on locomotor mode. Thus, when making interspecific comparisons, the behaviour of an animal needs to be considered before appropriate performance measures are selected. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrate that escape tactics and performance abilities have co-evolved in Niveoscincus, with an evolutionary trend towards behavioural and locomotor specialization.

We tested the hypothesis that the number of presacral vertebrae in lacertid lizards has evolved to meet requirements set by the structural habitat. The idea was that lizards from cluttered habitats (densely vegetated areas, stony walls and hills, rocks) would be aided by a flexible backbone with many vertebrae, ensuring manoeuvrability, whereas lizards from open habitats would require stiffer vertebrate columns, with relatively few vertebrae, favouring speed and acceleration capacity. In contrast to earlier findings in fishes and snakes, evolution of vertebral number and body size was uncorrelated in lacertid lizards. Body size also did not differ between structural habitat types (open areas, densely vegetated areas, vertical elements). Traditional analysis of variance suggests strong differences in vertebral counts between species from open areas and cluttered areas, the latter having higher numbers of presacral vertebrae. When adequate phylogenetic analyses are used, differences remain significant although the level of significance is considerably lower. Tests of the mechanistic relationships between vertebral number, bending ability, and manoeuvrability, and assessment of the relative importance of manoeuvrability and speed in habitats with varying degrees of impediment are needed to reveal the evolutionary path that has led to the differences in vertebral number.