Pyrethroid insecticides were intensively used against Cydia pomonella in the Río Negro and Neuquén valley, main production area of pome fruits in Argentina. Therefore, the first objective was to evaluate lambda-cyhalothrin resistance levels in C. pomonella larvae from orchards in this area that are currently under pyrethroids treatments. The second objective was to evaluate the frequency of kdr mutation in C. pomonella across Argentina. High levels of resistance to lambda-cyhalothrin (resistance ratios > 30) were determined in all the populations evaluated. The L1014F (kdr) mutation was evaluated in 355 diapausing larvae collected in 12 orchards from San Juan to Santa Cruz provinces (1690 km away from each other). The highest frequency of kdr mutation was determined in larvae from the Río Negro and Neuquén valley (0.61), followed by those from Mendoza (0.36). The kdr allele was absent or present at very low frequencies in orchards subjected to low pyrethroid pressure. The frequency of detection of kdr mutation in C. pomonella from Argentina is related to the use of pyrethroids against this pest in different areas. Target-site insensitivity is, at least, one of the mechanisms involved in resistance to lambda-cyhalothrin in codling moth from the Río Negro and Neuquén valley.

Millipedes are ecologically important soil organisms and may also be an economically threatening species in rural and urban areas when population outbreaks occur. In order to control infestations commercial formulations of deltamethrin have been commonly applied, even though there are few studies about the effects of such insecticide on millipedes. This paper describes the effects of this insecticide on millipedes showing neurotoxic effects assessed by synapsin labeling and confocal microscopy. Deltamethrin concentrations related to the DL50 of the active ingredient and a field concentration were applied topically in the diplopod Gymnostreptus olivaceus to evaluate the behavior, mortality rate, and synapsin levels in the brain 12, 24, and 48h after contact with deltamethin. The insecticide caused mortality at the higher concentrations employed, in which no change was observed in neurotransmission in the survivors. In contrast, at field concentrations, deltamethrin did not cause any deaths, but triggered significant changes in synapsin levels. The results obtained form the synapsin labeling provide several interpretations suggesting that the isolated application of this tool must be associated with additional tools in order to evaluate biologically induced effects of deltamethrin in an accurate way. In addition, the feasibility of chemical control of millipedes with deltamethrin is questioned.

House flies (Musca domestica L.) are key pests of poultry and are managed worldwide with a variety of insecticides. However, extensive and injudicious use of insecticides has led to the development of resistance in many insect pests. Insecticide mixtures can increase the efficacy of the product and/or delay the development of resistance, thus making them a useful tool for pest control. In addition to their efficacy when used alone, mixtures of emamectin benzoate, spinosad or nitenpyram with either lambda-cyhalothrin or profenofos were assessed against a susceptible strain of house flies collected from poultry farms. The analysis revealed that combination indices for lambda-cyhalothrin/emamectin benzoate and lambda-cyhalothrin/spinosad mixtures were significantly >1, indicating an antagonistic effect. In contrast, the indices for all the tested ratios of lambda-cyhalothrin/nitenpyram were significantly < 1, suggesting a synergistic effect. For mixtures containing profenofos, combination indices varied significantly. For example, synergism was observed in a 1:1 mixture containing lambda-cyhalothrin and emamectin benzoate, but antagonism occurred when a higher proportion of the latter insecticide was used. Conversely, synergism in a mixture containing profenofos and nitenpyram was observed only when a lower proportion of the second insecticide was used. The present results suggest that ideal insecticide mixtures must be empirically determined and alternative strategies such as mosaics, rotations and cultural control should be considered for the management of the house fly.

Populations of Plutella xylostella, extending over 3800 km in southern Australia, show no genetic structure as assessed by microsatellite markers; yet outbreaks of pyrethroid resistance occur sporadically in cropping areas. Since mutations in the para voltage-gated sodium channel gene have been implicated in pyrethroid resistance, we looked for DNA sequence variation at this target among Australian moths. We found two resistance mutations previously reported for this species (L1014F and T929I), as well as a novel substitution (F1020S). Of the eight possible haplotypes formed by combinations of these three biallelic polymorphisms, only four were found in Australian populations: the wild-type allele (w), the kdr mutation allele (kdr) with only L1014F, the super-kdr-like combination of L1014F and T929I (skdrl), and the crashdown allele with only F1020S (cdr). Comparison of genotype frequencies among survivors of permethrin assays with those from untreated controls identified three resistant genotypes: skdrl homozygotes, cdr homozygotes and the corresponding heterozygote, cdr/skrdl – the heterozygote being at least as resistant as either homozygote. Spatial heterogeneity of allele frequencies was conspicuous, both across the continent and among local collections, consistent with reported spatial heterogeneity of pyrethroid resistance. Further, high resistance samples were sometimes associated with high frequency of cdr, sometimes high frequency of skdrl, or sometimes with a high combined cdr+skdrl frequency. The skdrl and cdr alleles explain a high proportion of the Australia-wide resistance variation. These data add to evidence that nerve insensitivity by mutations in the para-sodium channel gene is a common pyrethroid resistance mechanism in P. xylostella.

Insects have evolved a variety of physiological and behavioral responses to various toxins in natural and managed ecosystems. However, insect behavior is seldom considered in insecticide studies although insects are capable of changing their behavior in response to their sensory perception of insecticides, which may compromise insecticide efficacy. This is particularly serious for insect pests that are physiologically resistant to insecticides since insecticide avoidance may further compromise their management. Locomotion plays a major role determining insecticide exposure and was, therefore, considered in investigating the behavioral responses of male and female adult insects from an insecticide-susceptible and two insecticide-resistant strains of the maize weevil Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a major pest of stored cereals. Different dose-dependent behavioral responses were expected among strains with behavioral resistance less likely to occur in physiologically resistant insects since they are able to withstand higher doses of insecticide. The behavioral responses to deltamethrin-sprayed surfaces differed among the maize weevil strains. Such responses were concentration-independent for all of the strains. Stimulus-independent behavioral resistance was unrelated to physiological resistance with one resistant strain exhibiting higher rates of flight take-off and the other resistant strain exhibiting lower flight take-off. Female mobility was similar for all strains, unlike male mobility. Males of each strain exhibited a pattern of mobility following the same trend of flight take-off. Behavioral patterns of response to insecticide are, therefore, variable among strains, particularly among insecticide-resistant strains, and worth considering in resistance surveys and management programs.

Integrated pest management strategies for cereal processing facilities often include both pheromone-baited pitfall traps and crack and crevice applications of a residual insecticide such as the pyrethroid cyfluthrin. In replicated pilot-scale warehouses, a 15-week-long experiment was conducted comparing population trends suggested by insect captures in pheromone-baited traps to direct estimates obtained by sampling the food patches in untreated and cyfluthrin-treated warehouses. Warehouses were treated, provisioned with food patches and then infested with all life stages of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst). Food patches, both those initially infested and additional uninfested, were surrounded by cyfluthrin bands to evaluate if insects would cross the bands. Results show that insect captures correlated with population trends determined by direct product samples in the untreated warehouses, but not the cyfluthrin-treated warehouses. However, dead insects recovered from the floor correlated with the insect densities observed with direct samples in the cyfluthrin-treated warehouses. Initially, uninfested food patches were exploited immediately and after six weeks harbored similar infestation densities to the initially infested food patches. These data show that pest management professionals relying on insect captures in pheromone-baited traps in cyfluthrin-treated structures could be deceived into believing that a residual insecticide application was suppressing population growth, when the population was actually increasing at the same rate as an untreated population.

In cotton-growing areas of Central Africa, timing of host crops and pest management practices in annual rainfed cropping systems result in a shifting mosaic of habitats that influence the dynamics and resistance of Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) populations on spatial scales, both within and across seasons. From 2002 to 2006, regional and local resistance was monitored among cotton fields and among the major host plants of the bollworm. From 2002, pyrethroid resistance increased within and across cotton-growing seasons to reach a worrying situation at the end of the 2005 growing season. Cotton crops played a fundamental role in the increase in seasonal resistance, even if the intensive use of insecticides on local tomato crops strongly concentrated resistance alleles in residual populations throughout the off-season. Due to the relative stability of resistance in H. armigera populations despite a long off-season, we believe that after the dispersal of the moths southwards at the end of the growing season, reverse migration mainly accounts for the reconstitution of populations at the onset of the following growing season. In addition, local resistance monitoring in 2005 and 2006 showed that it was possible to control the increase in resistance by temporarily stopping the use of pyrethroids during the period of peak infestation of cotton by H. armigera. On the other hand, the similar resistance frequency of populations sampled from sprayed and unsprayed synchronous hosts confirmed the absence of reproductive isolation between adults. As a result, diversity in cropping systems should be encouraged by planting alternative host plants to provide a mosaic of habitats, which in return would provide insecticide-free refuges. The implications for insecticide resistance management in annual cropping systems are discussed.

In a bioassay to determine non-target ecotoxicological effects of a pyrethroid spray (Ektoban®) on dung beetles, dung from both cypermethrin/cymiazol-treated and control cattle was collected one, two, three, five, seven, 14, 21 and 28 days after treatment and fed to a treatment and control group (respectively) of beetles of the species Euoniticellus intermedius (Reiche). This was done to assess whether a spray formulation of cypermethrin may affect dung beetles differently than previously tested pour-on formulations. Following three beetle generations for two weeks each, the experiment retrieved no significant differences in adult or larval survival, egg production, fecundity and fertility between the control and treatment group. These results demonstrated that the used spray formulation of cypermethrin is likely to be far less detrimental to dung beetles than previously tested pour-ons.

In North Africa, the potato tubermoth Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) is an important pest in traditional, non-refrigerated potato stores. A collaborative research programme of the Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique de Tunisie (INRAT) and the International Potato Center (CIP) investigates the relationships between, (a) the dynamics of the field populations, (b) the harvest date, (c) the economic damage in the field, and (d) the subsequent damage in stores under Tunisian conditions. Emphasis was given to the identification of cultural practices that allowed reduction of pesticide applications and to the replacement of the commonly used parathion with less toxic products.

Potato tubermoth control was achieved by applying a synthetic pyrethroid (permethrin) or Bacillus thuringiensis at the beginning of the storage period. The latter, however, seemed to be less effective on tubers with a high initial infestation (over 20%). The studies showed that tuber damage could be avoided by an early harvest and insecticide applications in the field were not indicated.

An integrated control approach including an early harvest date (to reduce initial tuber infestation), and the application of B. thuringiensis or a synthetic pyrethroid is being developed.

Ground spraying trials involving three synthetic pyrethroids: OMS 2012 (BAY FCR 1272, cyfluthrin) w.p. 10%, OMS 2013 (BAY NAK 1654, fenfluthrin) w.p. 5%, OMS 3004 (WL 85871, alphamethrin) w.p. 5%, were carried out in January 1984 against G. palpalis palpalis and G. tachinoides in the Bouaflé human trypanosomiasis focus, Ivory Coast. Two dosages of each formulation were tested as residual spray: 12 g of active ingredient (a.i.) per hectare at a concentration of 0.016% and 48 g (a.i.)/ha at 0.064%, The insecticide was applied by means of the atomiser SOLO PORT 423 and the total area treated was estimated at 29 ha. The results were evaluated during 5 months with Challier—Laveissière biconical traps.

OMS 2013 w.p. 5% at 12 g (a.i.)/ha, had unsatisfactory effect on G. palpalis palpalis and G. tachinoides from the first month after spray. At 48 g (a.i.)/ha this formulation showed a moderate effect on both vectors during the first 3 months after treatment, rate of reduction in apparent density by trapping (A.D.T.) varying between 70 and 90%.

OMS 2012 w.p. 10% at 48 g (a.i.)/ha gave satisfactory results, 92% reduction in A.D.T. of G. p. palpalis during the first 3 months after treatment. OMS 2012 w.p. 10% at 12 g (a.i.)/ha gave 94% reduction in A.D.T. of G. tachinoides during the first 2 months after treatment. At the dosage of 48 g (a.i.)/ha, 97% reduction in A.D.T. of G. tachinoides was recorded through the evaluation period.

OMS 3004 w.p. 5% at 12 g (a.i.)/ha, gave 97% reduction in A.D.T. of G. palpalis palpalis during the first 3 months after treatment. At 48 g (a.i.)/ha, 91–98% reduction in apparent density of G. p. palpalis was achieved during the period of evaluation. The effect of this formulation at 12 g (a.i.)/ha on G. tachinoides, was very pronounced during the first 3 months after treatment, being 99% reduction in A.D.T. At 48 g (a.i.)/ha, 100% reduction was obtained during the first 4 months and more than 99% reduction in 5 months after spray.

Ground spraying trials involving a new formulation of synthetic pyrethroid, alphamethrin (OMS 3004, WL 85 871) e.c. 10% were carried out in January 1983 against G. palpalis palpalis in the Bouaflé human trypanosomiasis focus, Ivory Coast. Four dosages were tested in five localities: 12 g of active ingredient (a.i.) per hectare; 24, 36 and 48 g (a.i.)/ha. Each dosage was applied once as a residual spray. The atomiser SOLO PORT 423 was used for spraying and the total area treated was estimated at 20 ha.

The results were evaluated with Challier-Laveissière biconical traps. The knock-down and short term effects of the insecticide were very satisfactory, 96–100% reduction in apparent density of the vector obtained with all the four dosages applied during the first 2 months after treatment.

Three to five months after spraying, more than 98% reduction in apparent density of G. palpalis palpalis was achieved even with the lowest dosage of 12 g (a.i.)/ha. The highest dosages tested did not seem to increase the persistence of the insecticide nor the mortality rate of the vector in the study area.

Due to adverse side effects on man at high dosages during and after treatment, it is recommended that in residual ground spraying, alphamethrin e.c. 10% be applied at a maximum dosage of 12 g (a.i.)/ha and at a concentration not exceeding 0.016% of active ingredient.