Chapter 2 presents a review of earlier studies that were mostly based on the assumption that general extenders are used with a referential function, are content-oriented, signal categorization and can be analyzed as set-marking tags or vague category identifiers. In the clearest cases, which are typically longer forms, they can be analyzed in terms of semantic features, shared with an antecedent, that identify the category involved. In other cases, there may be reference to an ad hoc category, also described as a non-lexicalized category, rather than one that is already lexicalized. The use of adjunctive forms as list completers is also normally interpreted in terms of set-marking.Adjunctive forms are also shown to be indicators of intertextuality. Long forms described as SKT tags incorporate reference to a "kind," indicating that classification or categorization is being signaled. A final section is dedicated to specific extenders, typically used with clear referential function.

Chapter 1 provides an introduction and overview of the topics covered in the book. General extenders, adjunctive and disjunctive, are defined, exemplified and their internal structure analyzed. Four functions are described, with examples, as referential, interpersonal, personal and textual. Thehistorical development of some common forms is described, as well as the processes of grammaticalization. Certain forms are recognized as linguistic variables that align with social variables to represent social markers in different communities. Translation equivalents are identified in a range of different languages and in the speech of second language learners and those using English as a lingua franca. Ideas are presented for teaching general extenders as examples of pragmatic markers. Their multifunctionality is illustrated, together with some observations on their position within utterances, leading to a novel claim that some forms can be used as associative plural markers, a feature hitherto undocumented in English.