As children learn more about language, they use it more effectively to achieve their conversational goals. They choose appropriate speech acts, establish joint attention, contribute new information, take up information from others, and take turns. They learn how to enter an exchange among others from as young as age two. Their intrusions in ongoing exchanges typically contain new information. Planning an utterance takes time, and children learn to plan what to say so as to take turns on time. This can be tracked in their answers to yes/no and wh- questions, where they get faster with age. They plan pretend play, assigning roles, assigning actions, and also utterances for each character enacted. They track common ground and design referring expressions for their addressees, and they repeat new words to mark uptake. They distinguish requests from offers, and, on occasion, persist in making repeated requests themselves. They clarify what they mean when asked and offer spontaneous repairs as well. In all this, they track what the others in the exchange say and choose when to enter the exchange themselves.

Stage 6 of the journey addresses various aspects of how information is conveyed and organized in a sentence, beginning with the stubborn problems that led to the development of dynamic semantics (‘donkey sentences’ and cross-sentential anaphora), through properties of expressions that are used to refer (descriptions, proper names, indexical expressions), to the organization of information (presuppositions and projective content, topic, focus, coherence). As such, it is a step to the next stage that concerns utterance meaning.

Chapter 3 provides an overview of two influential pragmatic approaches to reference: Accessibility theory and the Givenness Hierarchy. Both accounts have been claimed to be compatible with relevance theory. However, it has also been claimed relevance theory alone cannot account for the full range of data and that these auxiliary scales of activation are necessary additions. In this chapter these claims are examined, and some objections are raised. The more general objections relate to the nature of the relevance-theoretic approach to utterance interpretation and how scales of encoded activation might fit with this. More specific objections relate to how the activation scale accounts deal with stylistic or so-called special uses of referring expressions. Finally, some examples of proper names in English are briefly discussed to illustrate how highly context sensitive the choices made by speakers can be, and to demonstrate the crucial role played by considerations of style and genre.

Chapter 5 presents a fully procedural analysis of personal pronouns in English. Pronouns, it is argued encode procedures which operate at a sub-personal level. Features including gender, number and person features function purely syntactically and do not contribute directly to the semantics of the overall message. That is, they are not conceptual. Rather, the cognitive processes triggered by use of a pronoun function to constrain potential referents to a sub-personally identifiable set. The differences in interpretation that arise when a speaker chooses to place contrastive prosodic stress on a pronoun are discussed, along with examples where the choice of pronoun does not play a role in reference resolution but contributes to other aspects of the speaker’s overall meaning. The discussion focuses specifically on the communication of expressive effects and has significance not just for our understanding of pronouns, but for our understanding of procedural meaning more generally.

Chapter 4 outlines a procedural relevance-based analysis of the definite determiner the. The definite article, it is argued, signals to the hearer that he should seek out an existing conceptual file on which to resolve reference. The indefinite article, on the other hand, instructs the hearer to open a new conceptual file. As interpretation proceeds, the hearer seeks to align the conceptual content within the nominal of the definite description with that in the target conceptual file. This approach to the contribution that definite descriptions make to speaker meaning is then applied to cases of misdescription and, it is claimed, it also offers fresh perspective on the referential–attributive distinction. Finally, stylistic effects which may arise from the choice and content of definite descriptions are discussed.

The final chapter brings together the themes from across the volume and revisits the research questions which have driven the discussion. The main conclusions are briefly summarized and some suggestions are made for possible implications of the work and for future directions.

Chapter 6 applies the relevance-based account of referring expressions to the phenomenon of null subjects in non-pro-drop languages. So-called diary-style nulls, it is argued, are ultimately driven by the interaction of effects and effort and therefore by the speaker’s aim of achieving optimal relevance. Three broad categories of null subject use in English are identified: an informal null subject where the omission leads to extra cognitive effects, a pressurized null subject where the speaker’s abilities are the crucial factor, and finally, an ostensively vague null subject, which is driven by the speaker’s preferences. These three categories are not presented as an exhaustive taxonomy of English null subjects, or as theoretically distinct. Rather they emerge as a result of a speaker aiming at optimal relevance in different discourse contexts, and they represent occasions where different elements in the overall equation of optimal relevance drive lexical omissions.

Chapter 7 presents a context-based unitary analysis of demonstratives in English. Existing work reveals a wide and disparate range of effects associated with choice of demonstrative, and in this chapter, it is argued that these various and wide-ranging communicated effects are derived pragmatically. Procedures are proposed for both the proximal and distal demonstrative determiners, and a range of examples are discussed. It is argued that all of the identified uses and functions of demonstratives derive from the same underlying procedures, and that these procedures can interact with the discourse context to create effects that go beyond simply resolving reference. Examples from advertising and political discourse are discussed along with literary examples, and a range of stylistic effects are identified and explained on the procedural, relevance-based analysis.