Before we can understand the present state of the psychology of religion – with its frequent emphasis on empirical data – it can be helpful to understand the field’s history. The prominent theoreticians that we explore in this chapter – James, Freud, Jung, Maslow, Fromm, Allport, Becker, Frankl, and others – remain influential in the twenty-first century, but they are also controversial. William James’ biography and writings show that debates about religion were never purely intellectual matters for the great scientist and philosopher. Freud’s theorizing on religion is discussed in detail, including his ideas on the origin and meaning of mystical religious experiences, the roots of theistic belief in wish-fulfillment, the notion of religion as a universal obsessional neurosis, and the assessment of the historical importance of religion for civilization. This discussion of Freud is followed by consideration of Carl Jung’s more sympathetic outlook on aspects of religion. The chapter concludes with a comprehensive discussion of the many ways humanistic and existential thinkers have studied religion and spirituality.

Humans have a deep longing and need for connection and a sense of belonging. Social groups provide safety, a sense of purpose, and identity, and fulfil the psychological need to belong. For many, that need is fulfilled through family, peers, co-workers and other pro-social institutions. But others struggle to find their place. The online space provides opportunities for people to connect with others, especially during times of physical disconnection yet it is vulnerable to misuse and manipulation. This chapter discusses the need for belonging, and how struggles to belong contribute to participation in anti-social groups such as gangs, cults, and conspiracy groups. Using QAnon as an example, this chapter illustrates how conspiracy groups provide a sense of community, as people find and create meaning around shared and constructed identities which can lead to personal and societal risks. The chapter demonstrates how the need for belonging intersects with various other factors, in potentially beneficial or detrimental ways.

It is necessary to maintain healthy and productive responses to the stresses and declines associated with aging. A key factor is the choice of attitude. It is critical to see opportunities for growth in aging – they are there to be had. Aging is accompanied by declines in the speed of learning, working memory, and memory capacity. These declines are not caused by disease and are nearly universal. Devoting memory resources to what is important, and ignoring things that are not important is an excellent strategy. The best way to avoid negative emotions caused by events and experiences in the past is to be actively involved in the present moment and planning for the future. Meditation is a valuable method to practice letting go and enhancing your awareness of the opportunities that are available now. Aging also presents an opportunity to demonstrate self-compassion. Frequently, persons express compassion to others throughout their lives with loving devotion and selfless actions, without realizing that that are worthy of compassion themselves. Psychological reserve can be enhanced by attention to the development of self-compassion and appreciation of what give your life meaning.

A final discussion emphasizes the unique experience of each person as they continue into later life. We recognize how music may make available new ways to understand the existential challenges of aging, and to direct us in the enterprise of self-actualization and wellness. As Rollo May notes, in the process of aging we seek to bring together and integrate our understandings of all the earlier times of our life and find new ways of adapting to and enjoying life. We point out entrapments of aging (e.g., the belief that aging is all about decline) and how to overcome them. Moreover, recognizing our search for meaning in later life, we note the hope of self-actualizing transformation, and suggest that music may help older adults look at the world in a fresh, new way and to make positive adjustments to life’s challenges. As a universal phenomenon, we note that music breaks down barriers that separate us from others, allows us to see that which is common to all of us, and to celebrate living.