This chapter argues that syntactic structures contain a range of different types of empty category It begins by arguing (4.1) that seemingly subjectless sentences have null subjects of various kinds. It then argues that all clauses contain a TP projection, and that TP can be headed by a null T constituent in indicative clauses (4.2), subjunctive clauses, infinitive clauses, and small clauses (4.3). It then goes on to argue that all finite clauses are CPs headed by an overt or null C constituent (4.4), and that the same is true of most infinitive clauses (4.5). However, evidence is presented that small clauses and some infinitival clauses are defective in respect of lacking the CP layer found in other clauses. There is then a discussion of empty categories in nominals (4.6), arguing in support of positing null determiners and quantifiers, and null prepositions introducing so-called adverbial’ nominals/pronouns. The chapter concludes with a summary (4.7), and a set of bibliographical notes (4.8). Accompanying free-to-download materials include a Workbook and Answerbook for students, and an Answerbook and set of PowerPoints for teachers.

Chapter 7 deals with the relation between the case of the nominal (or adjectival) predicate and semantics. First, we consider instrumental predicates in such Slavic languages as Russian and Polish (and the instrumental/nominative alternation), essive predicates in Uralic languages and translative case in Finnish. This contrast has been linked to the distinction between stage-level and individual-level predicates, but also to additional semantic oppositions, e.g. between predicational and identity readings of predicate nominal sentences. Further, we consider the approach according to which this case alternation results from the existence of two types of small clauses, one of which is deficient in some sense. The chapter then turns to the essive case in Uralic languages. Like the Slavic predicate instrumental, it is associated with stage-level readings and with additional types of relativization, e.g. relativization to a facet/role of the argument or to a specific possible world. Finally, translative predicates are investigated. These predicates are strongly associated with the notion of change, but their compatibility with such verbs as jäädä ‘remain’ and jättää ‘leave’ challenges this link. An alternative analysis is described, formulated within a force-theoretic framework. Under this analysis, a translative predicate signals force exertion, rather than change.

Jary and Kissine examine the meaning of imperative sentences, taking the existing relevance-theoretic semantic analysis, in terms of the desirability and potentiality of the described state of affairs, as their point of departure. In their view, a complete account of the interpretation of imperatives has to explain how they can result in the addressee forming an intention to perform an action, and this requires the theory to make room for ‘action representations’ (in addition to factual representations, such as assumptions). They claim that the imperative form is uniquely specified to interface with such action representations.

In this chapter, Diane Blakemore focuses on two kinds of linguistic phrase which seem to be inherently expressive, nominal epithets such as 'the idiot' and small clauses such as 'you angel'. Blakemore argues against accounts that treat these structures as linguistically encoding the property of expressiveness and in favour of a relevance-theoretic account according to which they communicate a particular conceptual content that guides the addressee in identifying the attitude the speaker holds towards the target individual. Expressiveness arises when the main relevance of the utterance comes from this information about speaker attitude.