The use of mobile processing units (MPUs) for pasture poultry is growing rapidly. This study compared the economic feasibility of MPUs to two processing alternatives, traditional stationary processing on-farm plants and off-farm processing facilities. Our study combined a survey of pasture poultry farmers in Georgia, Louisiana, and Arkansas with the published research. Our findings suggest that MPUs and traditional on-farm processing alternatives have a lower processing cost, but that they require a higher initial investment than the off-farm option. In addition, off-farm processing at the United States Department of Agriculture-inspected facility allows selling products for a higher price. We therefore expect, on average, a higher per-bird profit than with the other two options. However, the excess processing capacity of the MPU can make this option the most profitable.

Organic agriculture has the potential to provide improved livelihood opportunities, increased income and social benefits for resource-poor small-scale farmers. It has thus become a popular strategy for economic development and poverty reduction in many areas of the global south. However, there has been limited empirical research regarding the actual benefits of certified organic production, particularly when organic is combined with fair trade certification, and for small-scale farmers who are not engaged in coffee or banana production. Further research is needed to demonstrate experiences of farmers under diverse socioeconomic conditions, organizational contexts and degrees of market access. To address these gaps, two surveys of certified organic and fair trade tea producers in China and Sri Lanka were undertaken to investigate the contributions of organic crops to the household economy. In both cases, organic production required lower investment in terms of external inputs but a higher input of farmers’ labor. The price premium received by farmers for the organic tea compensated for the extra labor input and lower yield, resulting in a net profit. However, given the relatively small plots of tea gardens of each household, organic production could not fully provide for the households’ livelihood. Non-farm income dominated the total income of the households across the study cases, despite the earnings from organic farming. In both sites, market-oriented organic tea projects have created more options for paid work locally, which benefits women of reproductive age. Social benefits of organic farming were also reported. Pursuing fair trade certification on top of organic production facilitated farmer organizing, training and community development. Organic agriculture and fair trade certification offer important prospects to improve the livelihoods of small-scale farmers in other, less favored areas of Asia. These forms of certified production could provide economic and social benefits in instances where farm income is the main source of household income.

The insecticide application techniques on cotton were compared in a series of trials. The new techniques compared well with knapsack sprayers and can play an important role in the control of Heliothis and other insect pests of cotton in Zambia. The ‘Electrodyn’ knapsack and ULV sprayers gave similar yields and pest control with cypermethrin at 30 g a.i./ha. A new pyrethroid lambda cyhalothrin (12 g a.i./ha) gave similar yields to cypermethrin (30 g a.i./ha) irrespective of the spraying techniques (Electrodyn, knapsack and ULV). The new application techniques have more potential for small-scale cotton farmers in developing countries as they receive limited training on the dilution of insecticides with water and calibration of knapsack sprayers.

Insect pests and plant diseases are among the main factors limiting bean production in Tanzania. A survey of methods of pest and disease management in small-scale bean production systems was carried out in Mgeta Division.

The results revealed that small-scale farmers are well informed of the major insect pests limiting bean production. The farmers know the type of damage caused by most insect species and the time of their occurrence. Although farmers are not aware of the pathogens affecting their crops, they can distinguish damage caused by insects from those due to diseases. Farmers are also aware that diseases are associated with environmental factors which influence disease development.

Farmers use both deliberate practices and incidental practices to manage insect pests and diseases.

The most frequently used deliberate practice is avoidance. Choice of growing season and date of planting are observed closely as a means of avoiding diseases. Although beans are cultivated in both growing seasons (September–December and February–May), the first season is the best for growing beans. Rains are not very heavy, but reliable and well distributed, and the season does not end up with low temperatures and high humidity which favour development of fungal diseases. Planting commences as soon as the rains start because early planted crops suffer less from pests. Farmers do not use purchased inputs in the form of fertilizer and pesticides. Larger insects are killed mechanically.

Incidental control takes place in the form of a number of cultural practices. Intercropping with maize, potatoes, cowpeas, pigeon peas, cassava or sorghum is normal and reduces the risk of crop failure. Terracing, where crop residues and weeds are buried under soil, reduces the amount of initial inoculum of certain pathogens. Farmers use a mixture of seeds of different cultivars deliberately, some high yielding and early maturing; and some late maturing, thus ensuring the farmer of food early in the season and beans as a cash crop later. Such variety mixtures appear to provide a buffer against pests and diseases.

A breeding strategy should be developed for variety mixtures instead of pure line varieties as the productivity of pure varieties in most cases is associated with the use of purchased inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides which are beyond the reach of small-scale farmers. Variety mixtures have a greater efficiency in using environmental resources, and are less affected by pests and diseases, and thus give higher yields than pure varieties.

Sorghum, maize and cowpea serve as staple food for people in Africa and are grown mostly by small-scale farmers. A major constraint on the production of these crops is attack by insect pests among which crop borers are most important, causing 30–80% yield losses. Use of pesticides to control these pests is hazardous and not feasible for the farmers. Alternative strategies for the integrated pest management (IPM) are being developed at the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) and include the following components: (1) Intercropping and other cultural practices, (2) Plant resistance to insect pests, and (3) Biological control. These IPM components have now been developed to a stage where they can be taken for on-farm trials under farmers' management for subsequent use by them. But, adoption and diffusion of agricultural innovations requires a prior knowledge of the farming systems and the socio-economic circumstances in which the target farmers operate, and their bearing on the use of innovations. Information on these aspects has therefore been obtained through a survey of farming households in Kendu Bay and Oyugis Divisions in western Kenya during April—August 1986. The survey was conducted jointly with UNECA and Ministry of Agriculture, Kenya, under a project funded by the Royal Government of Belgium.

The survey involved interview with 150 farmers, (75 in each Division. In Kendu Bay 27 were men and 48 women whereas in Oyugis 40 were men and 35 women.) and was based on a questionnaire which comprised six sections. Five sections covered the farmers' background, farming practices, pest problems and their control, socio-economic conditions, and accessibility/willingness of the farmers to participate in the project. The last section included field observations on the insect pests of sorghum, maize and cowpea.

On the basis of the information obtained on above-mentioned aspects, criteria were defined and assigned appropriate weigh tage for selecting 25 farmers in each Division for on-farm trials. The selected farmers included 12 men and 13 women in Kendu Bay while in Oyugis 13 men and 12 women were selected.

The measures that need to be taken to counter these limitations and thereby assist the farmers in increasing food production have been recommended.

Ninety farmers selected at random from three cotton growing districts of Zambia were interviewed to assess the current status of training and other sources of advice available, to help them in insect pest management of cotton. Training courses and demonstrations on pest control were attended by only about 50% of the farmers interviewed. The training, organized mostly by Government Farm Training Institutes, emphasized general aspects of cotton production. Whereas the demonstrations on chemical control were occasionally organized by multinational companies like ICI, Hoechst, and Shell Chemicals. Ninety-two per cent of the farmers were aware of the extension workers in their respective areas and were visited on an average of 4.8 times per growing season. The ratio of extension workers to small scale cotton farmers is reported and the means of communication are discussed. The other sources of information on cotton pest management available to farmers were radios, field days, leaflets and informal discussions within the farming community. Farmers expressed the need for more advice on methods of insect scouting and application of insecticides on cotton. Farmers generally felt that cotton pest management can be improved by introducing frequent training courses, increased number of extension workers coupled with demonstrations in cotton fields. The average yields of seed cotton obtained by trained farmers was 759.39 kg/ha as compared to untrained farmers who obtained 719 kg/ha.