Previous studies indicate that “hesitation” and “skepticism” are important barriers to the development of renewable energy industries in the United States. We examine whether key pecuniary and nonpecuniary characteristics of bioenergy crops underlie the hesitation argument. Based on a stated choice experiment, we find that Midwestern producers appreciate certain crop attributes that are found in switchgrass, but not in conventional crops. We also find that producers would be willing to grow switchgrass-like crops for net margins between $222/acre/year and $247/acre/year in marginal counties. We argue that farmers’ hesitation and skepticism toward bioenergy crops can be overcome.

Perennial energy crops like switchgrass that are used for biofuel production have the potential to generate various water quality benefits such as reduced nitrogen runoff. Yet the current expected returns to switchgrass are not profitable enough for these crops to be widely adopted by U.S. farmers due to relatively unstable yields, volatile revenues, and high costs of crop establishment. This study uses a dynamic economic model to investigate the uncertainties in the yields and costs of switchgrass production, in comparison with those of corn-soybeans in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed in Pennsylvania. Results indicate that farmers would be willing to convert corn-soybeans to switchgrass land use with the provision of payments for ecosystem services (PES). A targeted PES policy based on the environmental effectiveness of the crop land is found to be slightly more effective in providing nitrogen reductions than a uniform PES policy with cost savings of 8–19%. Moreover, switchgrass has the potential of providing energy supply while reducing greenhouse gases emissions.

Two solid state anaerobic digesters (SSADs), 15 L each, were set up for co-digestion of switchgrass with primary digestate of a liquid anaerobic digester (LAD) and the recirculating leachate. Both the LAD and two SSADs were operated at 50°C. The results showed that the bioreactors were not started up stably until day 16 and day 47 for reactors A and B, respectively. The supplement of LAD digestate or injection of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) into the recirculating leachate readily reinitiated the biogas production to normal daily high rates of the two individual SSADs, one on day 16 and the other on day 47. In contrast to reactor A, there was a longer lag phase for bioreactor B, however, it showed 46.2% [77.9 vs 53.3 L kg−1 volatile solid (VS)] more cumulative biogas yields, and higher reduction rate of total solid, VS, cellulose and hemicellulose of 29.5, 31, 40.6 and 15%, respectively, which was likely due to optimized pH and NaOH pretreated switchgrass during start-up period. Methane contents of biogas increased gradually and stabilized at 50% for both reactors, indicating a normal operation of anaerobic digestion lasted for at least 100 days. The determined parameters of digested residues met China organic fertilizer standard (NY 525-2012) except for high moisture and low total nutrient contents. Therefore, the product of SSAD has the potential value of organic fertilizer. It is concluded that the LAD digestate can be reused as inoculums by co-digestion with agricultural residues for biogas and organic fertilizer production in SSAD.

A multiobjective optimization model integrating with high-resolution geographical data was applied to examine the optimal switchgrass supply system in Tennessee that considers both feedstock cost and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the system. Results suggest that the type of land converted into switchgrass production is crucial to both plant gate cost and GHG emissions of feedstock. In addition, a tradeoff relationship between cost and GHG emissions for the switchgrass supply is primarily driven by the type of land converted. The imputed cost of lowering GHG emissions in the feedstock supply system was also calculated based on the derived tradeoff curve.

Biofuel production from lignocellulosic biomass (LCB) is being advocated as an alternative to fossil-based transportation fuels in the United States. LCB-based biofuel production has the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the transportation sector and to enhance rural economic activity through more intense use of agricultural lands (English et al., 2006). The Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) established in 2005 and revised in the Energy Independence and Security Act 2007 mandates 21 billion gallons of advanced biofuel (other than ethanol derived from corn starch) available for transportation use by 2022 with 16 billion gallons to be produced from LCB feedstock (U.S. Congress, 2007). Based on the recently revised One Billion Ton Update study (U. S. Department of Energy, 2011), considerable LCB feedstock, including dedicated energy crops, will be required to fulfill this goal. Notwithstanding the potential availability of LCB feedstock to meet the mandate, the cost of LCB feedstock will be an important factor influencing the sustainability of an LCB-based biofuel industrial sector.

This article analyzes economic tradeoffs among harvest date, fertilizer applied, nutrient removal, and switchgrass yield as they vary with respect to input and output prices. Economic sensitivity analyses suggest that higher biomass prices lead to earlier harvest. Optimal harvest time occurs beyond time of maximum yield because nutrient removal in the biomass is an important economic consideration. Switchgrass price premia that reflect the cost of non-optimal harvest time are driven by standing crop yield loss, nutrient removal, storage loss, and opportunity cost. These price premia could provide a mechanism to compensate producers for alternative harvest times and aid with logistics management.

Annual grass weed control and switchgrass cultivar response to PRE-applied pendimethalin and POST-applied mesotrione and quinclorac was evaluated in 2005 and 2006 near Paterson, WA, in both newly seeded and 1-yr-old established switchgrass. Pendimethalin applied to newly planted switchgrass at 1.1 kg ai ha−1 at the one-leaf stage in 2005 or at 0.67 kg ha−1 PRE in 2006 severely injured and greatly reduced switchgrass stands. Mesotrione applied POST at 0.07 kg ai ha−1 injured newly planted switchgrass, reduced switchgrass height for several weeks after treatment, and reduced final switchgrass biomass by 54% both years. ‘Kanlow’ and ‘Cave-in-Rock’ cultivars were injured less by mesotrione than ‘Shawnee’ in 2005, whereas in 2006, Kanlow was injured less than Shawnee and Cave-in-Rock. Quinclorac applied POST at 0.56 kg ai ha−1 injured newly planted switchgrass less than mesotrione and pendimethalin but reduced final switchgrass biomass by 33% both years compared with treatment with atrazine alone. All three herbicide treatments controlled large crabgrass in the year of establishment. Green foxtail counts were reduced 93% or more by pendimethalin and quinclorac compared with nontreated controls, but mesotrione failed to control green foxtail. Pendimethalin applied PRE at 1.1 kg ha−1 did not injure 1-yr-old established switchgrass or reduce switchgrass biomass. Quinclorac applied POST at 0.56 kg ha−1 to established switchgrass reduced switchgrass biomass of the first harvest by 16% in 1 of 2 yr. Mesotrione applied POST at 0.07 kg ha−1 injured established switchgrass and reduced biomass of the first harvest by 33 and 17% in 2005 and 2006, respectively. Kanlow was injured the least by mesotrione in both years. Established switchgrass suppressed late-emerging annual grass weeds sufficiently to avoid the need for a grass-specific herbicide application.

Producing biomass energy requires much land, and effects of biomass production on ecosystem services could greatly affect total biomass energy cost. This study estimates switchgrass production cost in western Massachusetts at three levels: private production cost, private cost plus social cost of nitrogen fertilizer externalities, and those costs plus the social opportunity cost of foregone forest ecosystem services. Values for nitrogen externalities and forest ecosystem services estimated with benefit transfer suggest that social cost is much greater than private switchgrass production cost. The benefit-transfer estimates are only first approximations, but conclusions are robust to a large range of values.

Analysis of the potential to supply 25% of projected 2025 U.S. transportation fuels indicates sufficient biomass resources are available to meet increased demand while simultaneously meeting food, feed, and export needs. Corn and soybeans continue to be important feedstocks for ethanol and biodiesel production, but cellulose feedstocks (agricultural crop residues, energy crops such as switchgrass, and forestry residues) will play a major role. Farm income increases, mostly because of higher crop prices. Increased crop prices increase the cost of producing biofuels.

As the hunt for renewable energy sources from agriculture intensifies, many agricultural producers are contemplating what crops to grow in the foreseeable future. On the one hand, there are traditional food crops, such as soybean, corn, and wheat, which have recently enjoyed a spike in prices, primarily because of the seemingly ever-growing demands of the corn to ethanol industry. On the other hand, there are the lesser-known perennial energy crops, such as switchgrass. Although much information on various aspects of switchgrass production exists, this paper discusses the adaptation of existing production and processing information to Arkansas conditions as a potential alternative to crop production.

First-generation grain ethanol biofuel has affected the historical excess capacity problem in U.S. agriculture. Second-generation cellulosic ethanol biofuel has had difficulty achieving cost-competitiveness. Third-generation drop-in biofuels are under development. If lignocellulosic biomass from perennial grasses becomes the feedstock of choice for second- and third-generation biorefineries, an integrated system could evolve in which a biorefinery directly manages feedstock production, harvest, storage, and delivery. Modeling was conducted to determine the potential economic benefits from an integrated system. Relatively low-cost public policies that could be implemented to facilitate economic efficiency are proposed.

Arkansas cropping pattern changes at the county level were estimated under various scenarios involving a likely decline in water availability, the development of a biomass market for renewable energy production, and the potential of a widely used carbon offset market. These scenarios are analyzed separately and jointly to determine which of the three scenarios is expected to have the largest impact on net (emissions - sequestration) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, renewable fuels feedstock supply, and producer net returns. Land use choices included conventional crops of rice, cotton, soybean, corn, grain sorghum, pasture, and hay. Specialty crops of loblolly pine and switchgrass were modeled for their respective potential to sequester carbon and provide feedstock for renewable fuels. GHG emissions were measured across an array of production methods for each crop. Soil and lumber carbon sequestration was based on yield, soil texture, and tillage. Using the concept of additionality in which net GHG emissions reductions compared with a baseline level were rewarded at a carbon price of $15 per ton along with $40 per dry ton of switchgrass, baled at field side, revealed that irrigation restrictions had the largest negative impact on producer net returns while also lowering net GHG emissions. Introducing the higher carbon price led to minor positive income ramifications and greatly reduced net GHG emissions. Biomass production returns were higher than the returns from the carbon offset market, however, at the cost of greater net GHG emissions. The combination of all factors led to a significant increase in switchgrass and pine production. In this scenario, approximately 16% of the total income losses with lower nonirrigated yields were offset with returns from biomass and carbon markets. Lowest statewide net GHG emissions were achieved given least irrigation fuel use and a greater than 15% increase in carbon sequestration with pine and switchgrass.

The Renewable Fuel Standard mandates in the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 will require 36 billion gallons of ethanol to be produced in 2022. The mandates require that 16 of the 36 billion gallons must be produced from cellulosic feedstocks. The potential land use implications resulting from these mandates were examined using two methods, the POLYSYS model and a general equilibrium model. Results of the POLYSYS analysis indicated that 72.1 million tons of corn stover, 23.5 million tons of wheat straw, and 24.7 million acres would be used to produce 109 million tons of switchgrass in 2025 to meet the mandate. Results of the CGE analysis indicated that 10.9 billion bushels of corn grain, 71 million tons of corn stover, and 56,200 tons of switchgrass is needed to meet the mandate.

The objective of this research is to develop an economic analysis of different crop mix biofuels programs for meeting ethanol and sustainability demands. Primary data are from South Dakota State University field experiments on farms located in east-central South Dakota. The data include 4 years of field data, three crop systems (mixed grass, switchgrass and corn), two residue treatments (no removal, removal of biomass), and three landscape positions (back slope, crest and foot slope). A representative farm model and five scenarios are developed to conduct a full budget analysis over a 12-year period. Public benefits are evaluated, using the benefit transfer method to value ecosystem services, by allocating a dollar value to three environmental variables; carbon sequestration, reduction of sedimentation and pheasant production. Stochastic simulation results are compared for each of the five scenarios, one with only annualized net private returns, and one including the value of environmental benefits. Results indicate that: (1) the conventional continuous corn scenario has the highest net returns over the 12-year budget, (2) carbon sequestration represents 80% of the environmental benefits, and (3) the added economic value of ecosystem services does not provide enough incentives for farmers to convert from corn production to grass production.