This chapter examines second language learning and teaching from a skills perspective, that is, reading, writing, listening, and speaking. The chapter first explains the differences among the four skills (e.g., receptive vs. productive; the necessity of formal instruction). Then, the chapter dissects each skill. As for reading and writing, the chapter discusses the necessity of formal instruction, and how the two skills are developed cognitively. The chapter also distinguishes writing-to-learn-language and learning-to-write. In terms of listening, the chapter explains different ways of processing incoming information (i.e., parsing). In relation to speaking, the chapter discusses differences between monologues or dialogues and the influence that time pressure has on second language production. By drawing on the previous chapters focusing on specific language components, the chapter ends with pedagogical recommendations for teaching the academic skills (e.g., how to target and sequence different skills).

This chapter focuses on instructed second language acquisition research that examines second language learning specifically in instructional contexts, broadly construed (e.g., classrooms, online learning, self-study). The scope of the research field is discussed by distinguishing it from broader second language acquisition research. In essence, the chapter addresses the primary question that researchers and teachers are interested in: Can instruction help learners develop their second language proficiency? The chapter then answers the follow-up question which is: Which types of instruction are more or less helpful? In answering this question, the chapter considers the goals that learners and other stakeholders, such as teachers and parents, have for their second language development. It discusses different types of second language knowledge (implicit and explicit knowledge) as the goal of second language instruction. Finally, the chapter explores pedagogical issues and ends by considering a taxonomy that describes various approaches and methodologies to second language teaching.

This chapter provides an overview of pedagogical heritage language (HL) assessment issues and an agenda for enhancing positive washback effects of assessment on HL learners in the future. After an introduction, the chapter first discusses the definition of HL learners used here and elsewhere. Second, it explores two distinct types of tests that are important and relevant to the subsequent discussions of HL assessment issues. The discussions reveal an apparent lack of validation studies for proficiency assessment tools in general and HL assessment in particular. For example, postsecondary placement investigations dealing with HL learners largely focus on Spanish but little is known for placement practices in other HLs. Also, the availability of assessment tools for pre-collegiate HL programs is very limited, especially for less commonly taught languages. Validation studies of existing assessment procedures for pre-collegiate HL programs are scarce. This chapter also points out that bilinguals’ dynamic and holistic use of linguistic repertoires adds complexity to assessing bilinguals’ HL proficiency. This chapter mainly discusses HL assessment in pedagogical contexts, but where relevant, it examines the use of HL tests for research as well.

Assessing intercultural communicative competence can be challenging for a number of reasons. First, there is little consensus regarding the precise definitions of subcomponents of intercultural competence, making it difficult to identify specific constructs to assess. Second, intercultural competence is locally situated, so the “same behavior or skill may be perceived as competent in one context but not another or one perceiver but not another, and thus no particular skill or ability is likely to ever be universally ‘competent’” (Spitzberg & Changnon, 2009, p. 6). Third, in a related vein, some aspects of intercultural communicative competence might not be suitable for classroom assessment, an issue that is addressed at the end of this chapter. In spite of these challenges, for personal and institutional purposes, assessing learners’ progress in intercultural communicative competence remains an important educational objective. Thus, in this chapter, I review several relevant concepts in L2/Lx assessment, then explore how they relate to understanding intercultural communicative competence, illustrating the theory with three case studies.