This chapter introduces, closely following Wabeladio’s explanations, how the logics and phonographic aspects of Mandombe work as an alphabet, explaining the geometrical principles underpinning it. It also contains some personal reflections on the relationship between mathematics and culture.

Chapter 7: Reading Different Languages. This chapter outlines differences in learning to read in differing L1s. Linguistic differences, or linguistic distance, between any given L1 and L2 will be a factor to consider in L2 reading development. The study of linguistic differences when reading across languages also leads to identifying universal linguistic aspects of reading development. The chapter focuses more specifically on differing orthographic systems, from alphabetic systems to morpho-syllabic systems as well as mixed systems. A major source of variation within alphabetic systems is the concept of orthographic depth between orthography and phonology. English is the most opaque orthographic language and, in that respect, is an outlier among languages of the world. Other factors in word recognition development include the informational density of a given orthography, word reading time, and morphological processing. The many differences across languages also impact L1 to L2 reading transfer. The chapter closes with a discussion of reading universals in relation to L1 to L2 reading transfer and provides a set of implications for instruction.

Developing community writing systems in marginalized communities may have many benefits. These range from improved self-esteem and visibility of the language, for written communication and the production of materials. Writing is essential for education: both mother tongue-based multilingual education and immersion teaching for revitalization. This chapter reviews practical and ideological considerations in writing oral languages, exploring motivations behind spelling and script choices. It is essential that communities be in control of all activities that aim at establishing community orthographies for their languages – above all, community members must wish to have their languages written. Key factors in designing effective orthographies are considered, including examples of scripts adopted by minority languages and factors that have influenced their choices. One individual recounts his personal journey to writing and creating literature in his language, Wymysiöeryś. Examples are also given of how curriculum development and research are shaped by a focus on Nahuatl ways of thinking and organizing knowledge.

Chapter 3 covers the way the Korean language is and has been written. The primary topic is Hangul, the writing system invented in the fifteenth century and now a symbol of Korean culture and language. The Hangul system is renowned for the elegance and rationality of its design. Alone among national writing systems in the world, it combines alphabetic and syllabic features. We cover the background and controversies surrounding the invention of Hangul and describe its important linguistic features. But we also stress the continuities between Hangul and the writing technologies that preceded and surrounded it. These include the system known as kugyol, which was devised in the Silla period as a way of glossing a Chinese text to read it in Korean. Like kugyol, the Hangul alphabet was originally devised to make texts in Chinese characters accessible to Korean readers. Although far superior to kugyol and, unlike its predecessor, designed as an all-purpose writing system, Hangul retained a central design feature – the ability to write the sounds of Korean as a syllabic block, thus occupying graphic space in the same way as other written languages of the region.