Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-13T01:23:59.474Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

27 - Reactive Attachment Disorder

from Section 6 - Etiology and Phenomenology of Specific Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 December 2018

By
Kimberly Renk
Edited by
Bunmi O. Olatunji
Bunmi O. Olatunji
Affiliation:
Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
Get access

Summary

A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Anxiety and Related Disorders , pp. 743 - 768
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adolphs, R. (2004). Emotional vision. Nature Neuroscience, 7, 1167–1168.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation. New York, NY: Wiley.Google Scholar
Allen, B. (2016). A RADical idea: A call to eliminate “attachment disorder” and “attachment therapy” from the clinical lexicon. Evidence-Based Practice in Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 1, 60–71.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (APA). (1980). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Third Edition (DSM-III). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (APA). (1987). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Third Edition-Revised (DSM-III-R). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (APA). (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fourth Edition (DSM-IV). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fourth Edition-Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fifth Edition (DSM-5). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Atran, S., Medin, D. L., & Ross, N. O. (2005). The cultural mind: Environmental decision making and cultural modeling within and across populations. Psychological Review, 112, 744–776.Google Scholar
Baer, J. C. & Martinez, C. D. (2006). Child maltreatment and insecure attachment: A meta-analysis. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 24, 187–197.Google Scholar
Bauman, M. D., Lavenex, P., Mason, W. A., Capitanio, J. P., & Amaral, D. G (2004a). The development of mother–infant interactions after neonatal amygdala lesions in rhesus monkeys. Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 711–721.Google Scholar
Bauman, M. D., Lavenex, P., Mason, W. A., Capitanio, J. P., & Amaral, D. G. (2004b). The development of social behavior following amygdala lesions in rhesus monkeys. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 1388–1411.Google Scholar
Beebe, B., Jaffe, J., Markese, S., Buck, K., Chen, H., Cohen, P., Bahrick, L., Andrews, H., & Feldstein, S. (2010). The origins of 12-month attachment: A microanalysis of 4-month mother–infant interaction. Attachment and Human Development, 12, 3–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boris, N. W. (2003). Attachment, aggression and holding: A cautionary tale. Attachment and Human Development, 5, 245–247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boris, N. W., Hinshaw-Fuselier, S. S., Smyke, A., Scheeringa, M. S., Heller, S. S., & Zeanah, C. H. (2004). Comparing criteria for attachment disorders: Establishing reliability and validity in high-risk samples. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 68–577.Google Scholar
Boris, N. W. & Renk, K. (2017). Beyond reactive attachment disorder: How might attachment research inform child psychiatry practice? Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 26, 455–476.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1980). By ethology out of psycho-analysis: An experiment in interbreeding. Animal Behavior, 28, 649–656.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1988). A Secure Base. New York, NY: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Buchanan, T. W., Tranel, D., & Adolphs, R. (2009). The human amygdala in human function. In Whalen, P. J. & Phelps, E. A. (eds.), The Human Amygdala (pp. 289–318). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Cassidy, J. (2008). The nature of the child’s ties. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (eds.), Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications (2nd edn (pp. 3–22). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Charney, D., Grillon, C., & Bremner, J. D. (1998). The neurobiological basis of anxiety and fear: Circuits, mechanisms, and neurochemical interactions (Part I). Neuroscientist, 4, 35–44.Google Scholar
Charuvastra, A. & Cloitre, M. (2008). Social bonds and posttraumatic stress disorder. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 301–328.Google Scholar
Chatoor, I., Ganiban, J., Colin, V., Plummer, N., & Harmon, R. J. (1998). Attachment and feeding problems: A reexamination of nonorganic failure to thrive and attachment insecurity. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 1217–1224.Google Scholar
Cichetti, D. (2008). A multiple-levels-of-analysis perspective on research in developmental psychopathology. In Beauchaine, T. P. & Hinshaw, S. P. (eds.), Child and Adolescent Psychopathology (pp. 27–57). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cohen, H., Liberzon, I., & Matar, M. A. (2014). Translational implications of oxytocin-mediated social buffering following immobilization stress in female prairie voles. Biological Psychiatry, 76, 268–269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conway, M. A. & Pleydell-Pearce, C. (2000). The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. Psychological Review, 107, 261–288.Google Scholar
Cuthbert, B. N. (2014). Research domain criteria: Toward future psychiatric nosology. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 7, 4–5.Google Scholar
Cuthbert, B. N. & Kozak, M. J. (2013). Constructing constructs for psychopathology: The NIMH research domain criteria. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122, 928–937.Google Scholar
Depue, R. A. & Collins, P. F. (1999). Neurobiology of the structure of personality: Dopamine, facilitation of incentive motivation, and extraversion. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 491–517.Google Scholar
Dozier, M., Manni, M., Gordon, M., Peloso, E., Gunnar, M., Stovall-Mc, K., Eldreth, D., & Levine, S. (2006). Foster children’s diurnal production of cortisol: An exploratory study. Child Maltreatment, 11, 189–197.Google Scholar
Dozier, M., Peloso, E., Lewis, E., Laurenceau, J., & Levine, S. (2008). Effects of an attachment-based intervention on the cortisol production of infants and toddlers in foster care. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 845–859.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edelman, G. M. & Tononi, G. (1995). Neural Darwinism: The brain as a selectional system. In Cornwell, J. (ed.), Nature’s Imagination: The Frontiers of Scientific Vision (pp. 78–100). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Elovainio, M., Raaska, H., Sinkkonen, J., Mäkipää, S., & Lapinieimu, H. (2015). Associations between attachment-related symptoms and later psychological problems among international adoptees: Results from the FinAdo study. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 56, 53–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feldman, R., Weller, A., Zagoory-Sharon, O., & Levine, A. (2007). Evidence for a neuroendocrinological foundation of human affiliation: Plasma oxytocin levels across pregnancy and the postpartum period predict mother–infant bonding. Psychological Science, 18, 965–970.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, H. E., Wong, M. M., & Zucker, R. A. (2013). Early origins of alcohol use and abuse: Mental representations, relationships, and the challenge of assessing the risk-resilience continuum very early in the life of the child. In Suchman, N. E., Pajulo, M., & Mayes, L. C. (eds.), Parenting and Substance Abuse: Developmental Approaches to Intervention. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fonagy, P., Gergely, G., & Target, M. (2009). Psychoanalytic constructs and attachment theory and research. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (eds.), Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications (2nd edn) (pp. 783–810). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Frijda, N. H. (2007). The Laws of Emotion. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.Google Scholar
Garvey, M., Avenevoli, S., & Anderson, K. (2016). The National Institute of Mental Health Research Domain Criteria and clinical research in child and adolescent psychiatry. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 55, 93–98.Google Scholar
Gleason, M. M., Fox, N. A., Drury, S., Smyke, A., Egger, H. I., Nelson, C. A. III, Gregas, M. C., & Zeanah, C. H. (2011). Validity of evidence-derived criteria for reactive attachment disorder: Indiscriminately social/disinhibited and emotionally withdrawn/inhibited types. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 50, 216–231.Google Scholar
Goldfarb, W. (1945). The effects of psychological deprivation in infancy. American Journal of Psychiatry, 102, 18–33.Google Scholar
Goldin, P. R., Ziv, M., Jazaieri, H., Hahn, K., Heimberg, R., & Gross, J. J. (2013). Impact of cognitive behavioral therapy for social anxiety disorder on the neural dynamics of cognitive reappraisal of negative self-beliefs: Randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 70, 1048–1056.Google Scholar
Hart, H. & Rubia, K. (2012). Neuroimaging of child abuse: A critical review. Frontiers of Human Neuroscience, 6, 52.Google Scholar
Hartley, C. A. & Phelps, E. A. (2010). Changing fear: The neurocircuitry of emotion regulation. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35, 136–146.Google Scholar
Hershenberg, R. & Goldfried, M. R. (2015). Implications of the RDoC for the research and practice of psychotherapy. Behavior Therapy, 46, 156–165.Google Scholar
Howe, M. L. & Courage, M. L. (1997). The emergence and early development of autobiographical memory. Psychological Review, 104, 499–523.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunter, L., Minnis, H., & Wilson, P. (2011). Altered stress responses in children exposed to early adversity: A systematic review of salivary cortisol studies. Stress, 14, 614–626.Google Scholar
Insel, T. R., Cuthbert, B., Garvey, M., Heinssen, R., Pine, D. S., Quinn, K., & Wang, P. (2010). Research domain criteria (RDoC): Toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 748–751.Google Scholar
Johnson, D. & Gunnar, M. (2011). Growth failure in institutionalized children. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 76, 92–126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jonkman, C. S., Oosterman, M., Schuenger, C., Bolle, E. A., Boer, F., & Lindauer, R. J. L. (2014). Disturbances in attachment: Inhibited and disinhibited symptoms in foster children. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 8, 21.Google Scholar
Joseph, R. (1996). Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Clinical Neuroscience: Emotion Cognition, Language, Memory, Brain Damage, and Abnormal Behavior (2nd edn). Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.Google Scholar
Kaufman, J., Gelernter, J., Hudziak, J., Tyrka, A. R., & Coplan, J. D. (2015). The research domain criteria (RDoC) project and studies of risk and resilience in maltreated children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 54, 617–625.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaufman, J. & Weder, N. (2010). Neurobiology of early life stress: Evolving concepts. In Martin, A., Scahill, L., & Kratochvil, C. J. (eds.), Pediatric Psychopharmacology (2nd edn). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kočovská, E., Wilson, P., Young, D., Wallace, A. M., Gorski, C., Follan, M., Smillie, M., Puckering, C., Barnes, J., Gillberg, C., & Minnis, H. (2013). Cortisol secretion in children with symptoms of reactive attachment disorder. Psychiatry Research, 209, 74–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kozak, M. J. & Cuthbert, B. N. (2016). The NIMH Research Domain Criteria Initiative: Background, issues, and pragmatics. Psychophysiology, 53, 286–297.Google Scholar
Landers, M S. & Sullivan, R. M. (2012). The development and neurobiology of infant attachment and fear. Developmental Neuroscience, 34, 101–114.Google Scholar
Lehmann, S., Havik, O. E., Havik, T., & Heiervang, E. R. (2013). Mental disorders in foster children: A study of prevalence, comorbidity, and risk factors. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 7, 39.Google Scholar
Leiden Conference on the Development and Care of Children without Permanent Parents. (2012). The development and care of institutionally reared children. Child Development Perspectives, 6, 174–180.Google Scholar
Lewis, M. D. (2005). Self-organizing individual differences in brain development. Developmental Review, 25, 252–277.Google Scholar
Lieberman, A. F. & van Horn, P. (2009). Child-parent psychotherapy: A developmental approach to mental health treatment in infancy and early childhood. In Zeanah, C. J. (eds.), Handbook of Infant Mental Health (3rd edn) (pp. 439–449). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Liotti, G. (2004). Trauma, dissociation, and disorganized attachment: Three strands of a single braid. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 41, 472–486.Google Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K. & Jacobvitz, D. (2008). Attachment disorganization, genetic factors, parenting contexts and developmental transformation from infancy to adulthood. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. (eds.), Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications (2nd edn) (pp. 666–697). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Macnamara, A. & Phan, K. L. (2016). Psychobiological operationalization of RDoC constructs: Methodological and conceptual opportunities and challenges. Psychophysiology, 53, 406–409.Google Scholar
Maier, S. F., Amat, J., Baratta, M. V., Bland, S. T., Christianson, J. C., Thompson, B., … Watkins, L. R. (2009). The role of the medial prefrontal cortex in mediating resistance and vulnerability to the impact of adverse events. In Pariante, C. M., Nesse, R. M., Nutt, D., & Wolpert, L. (eds.), Understanding Depression: A Translational Approach (pp. 157–171). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Main, M. & Solomon, J. (1986). Discovery of an insecure-disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern. Affective Development in Infancy (pp. 95–124). Westport, CT: Ablex Publishing.Google Scholar
Markowitsch, H. J., Thiel, A., Kessler, J., von Stockhausen, H. M., & Heiss, W. D. (1997). Ecphorizing semi-conscious episodic information via the right temporal polar cortex: A PET study. Neurocase, 3, 445–449.Google Scholar
McGowan, P. O., Sasaki, A., D’Alessio, A. C., Dymov, S., Labonté, B., Szyf, M., Turecki, G., & Meaney, M. J. (2009). Epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor in human brain associates with childhood abuse. Nature Neuroscience, 12, 342–348.Google Scholar
Minnis, H., Macmillan, S., Pritchett, R., Young, D., Wallace, B., Butcher, J., Sim, F., Baynham, K., Davidson, C., & Gillberg, C. (2013). Prevalence of reactive attachment disorder in a deprived population. British Journal of Psychiatry, 202, 342–346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Minnis, H., Marwick, H., Arthur, J., & McLaughlin, A. (2006). Reactive attachment disorder: A theoretical model beyond attachment. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 15, 336–342.Google Scholar
Mizuno, K., Takiguchi, S., Yamazaki, M., Asano, M., Kato, S., Kuriyama, K., Watanabe, Y., Sadato, N., & Tomoda, A. (2015). Impaired neural reward processing in children and adolescents with reactive attachment disorder: A pilot study. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 17, 89–93.Google Scholar
Montalvo-Ortiz, J. L., Gelernter, J., Hudziak, J., & Kaufman, J. (2016). RDoC and translational perspectives on the genetics of trauma-related psychiatric disorders. American Journal of Medical Genetics, Part B, 171B, 81–91.Google Scholar
Murray, I., Kempton, C., Woolgar, M., & Hooper, R. (1993). Depressed mothers’ speech to their infants and its relation to infant gender and cognitive development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 1083–1101.Google Scholar
National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). (2008). The National Institute of Mental Health strategic plan (NIH Publication No. 08–6368). Retrieved from www.nimh.nih.gov/about/strategic-planning-reports/index.shtml.Google Scholar
Nestler, E. J., Barrot, M., DiLeone, R. J., Eisch, A. J., Gold, S. J., & Monteggia, L. M. (2002). Neurobiology of depression. Neuron, 34, 13–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patrick, C. J. & Hajcak, G. (2016a). RDoC: Translating promise into progress. Psychophysiology, 53, 415–424.Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J. & Hajcak, G. (2016b). Reshaping clinical science: Introduction to the special issues on psychophysiology and the NIMH Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) initiative. Psychophysiology, 53, 281–285.Google Scholar
Pitkow, L. J., Sharer, C. A., Ren, X., Insel, T. R., Terwilliger, E. F., & Young, L. J. (2001). Facilitation of affiliation and pair-bond formation by vasopressin receptor gene transfer into the ventral forebrain of a monogamous vole. Journal of Neuroscience, 21, 7392–7396.Google Scholar
Powell, B., Cooper, G., Hoffman, K., & Marvin, R. S. (2013). The Circle of Security Intervention: Enhancing Attachment in Early Parent–Child Relationships. New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Prior, V. & Glaser, D. (2006). Understanding Attachment and Attachment Disorders: Theory, Evidence and Practice. London: Jessica Kingsley.Google Scholar
Pritchett, R., Pritchett, J., Marshall, E., Davidson, C., & Minnis, H. (2013). Reactive attachment disorder in the general population: A hidden ESSENCE disorder. Scientific World Journal, 2013, Article ID 818157.Google Scholar
Provence, S. & Lipton, R. C. (1962). Infants in Institutions. New York, NY: International Publisher Press.Google Scholar
Renk, K., Boris, N. W., Kolomeyer, E., Lowell, A., Puff, J., Cunningham, A., Khan, M., & McSwiggan, M. (2016). The state of evidence-based parenting interventions for parents who are substance-involved. Pediatric Research-Nature, 79, 177–183.Google Scholar
Richters, M. M. & Volkmar, F. R. (1994). Reactive attachment disorder of infancy or early childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 328–332.Google Scholar
Rinaman, L., Levitt, P., & Card, J. P. (2000). Progressive postnatal assembly of limbic-autonomic circuits revealed by central transneuronal transport of pseudorabies virus. Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 2731–2741.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., Kreppner, J., & Sonuga-Burke, E. (2009). Emanuel Miller Lecture: Attachment insecurity, disinhibited attachment, and attachment disorders: Where do research findings leave the concepts? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Discipline, 50, 529–543.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. & Shaffer, D. (1980). DSM-III: A step forward or back in terms of the classification of child psychiatric disorders? Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 19, 371–394.Google Scholar
Sanislow, C. A., Pine, D. S., Quinn, K. J., Kozak, M. J., Garvey, M. A., Heinssen, R. K., Wang, P. S., & Cuthbert, B. N. (2010). Developing constructs for psychopathology research: Research domain criteria. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 631–639.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schaefer, M. (2007). Public Sector Behavioral Health for Children and Families: Aligning Systems and Incentives. New Haven, CT: Zigler Center in Child Development and Social Policy Colloquium SeriesGoogle Scholar
Schore, A. N. (1994). Affect Regulation and the Origin of the Self: The Neurobiology of Emotional Development. New York, NY: Psychology Press and Routledge.Google Scholar
Schore, A. N. (2000). Attachment and the regulation of the right brain. Attachment & Human Development, 2, 23–47.Google Scholar
Schore, A. N. (2001). The effects of early relational trauma on right brain development, affect regulation, and infant mental health. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22, 201–269.Google Scholar
Shankman, S. A. & Gorka, S. M. (2015). Psychopathology research in the RDoC era: Unanswered questions and the importance of the psychophysiological unit of analysis. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 98 (2, Part 2), 330–337.Google Scholar
Shimada, K., Takiguchi, S., Mizushima, S., Fujisawa, T. X., Saito, D. N., Kosaka, H., Okazawa, H., & Tomoda, A. (2015). Reduced visual cortex grey matter volume in children and adolescents with reactive attachment disorder. NeuroImage: Clinical, 9, 13–19.Google Scholar
Silberman, E. K. & Weingartner, H. (1986). Hemispheric lateralization of function related to emotion. Brain Cognition, 5, 322–353.Google Scholar
Smith, A. S. & Wang, Z. (2014). Hypothalamic oxytocin mediates social buffering of the stress response. Biological Psychiatry, 76, 281–288.Google Scholar
Smith Stover, C. & Keeshin, B. (In press). Research domain criteria and the study of trauma in children: Implications for assessment and treatment research. Clinical Psychology Review.Google Scholar
Smyke, A. T., Zeanah, C. H., Gleason, M. M., Drury, S. S., Fox, N. A., Nelson, C. A., & Guthri, D. (2012). A randomized controlled trial comparing foster care and institutional care for children with signs of reactive attachment disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 508–514.Google Scholar
Stafford, B., Zeanah, C. H., & Scheeringa, M. (2003). Exploring psychopathology in the early childhood: PTSD and attachment disorders in DC: 0–3 and DSM-IV. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24, 398–409.Google Scholar
Stern, D. N. (1985). The Interpersonal World of the Infant. New York, NY: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Takiguchi, S., Fujisawa, T. X., Mizushima, S., Saito, D. N., Okamoto, Y., Shimada, K., Koizumi, M., Kumazaki, H., Jung, M., Kosaka, H., Hiratani, M., Ohshima, Y., Teicher, M. H., & Tomoda, A. (2015). Ventral striatum dysfunction in children and adolescents with reactive attachment disorder: Functional MRI study. BJPsych Open, 1, 121–128.Google Scholar
Teicher, M. H. & Samson, J. A. (2013). Childhood maltreatment and psychopathology: A case for ecophenotypic variants as clinically and neurobiologically distinct subtypes. American Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 1114–1133.Google Scholar
Thompson, R. (2009). Early attachment and later development: Familiar questions, new answers. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (eds.), Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications (2nd edn) (pp. 348–365). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Tizard, B. & Hodges, J. (1978). The effect of early institutional rearing on the development of eight year old children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 19, 99–118.Google Scholar
Tizard, B. & Rees, J. (1975). The effect of early institutional rearing on the behavior problems and affectional relationships of four-year-old children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 16, 61–73.Google Scholar
Trevarthen, C. (1998). The concept and foundations of infant intersubjectivity. In Braten, S. (ed.), Intersubjective Communication and Emotion in Early Ontogeny (pp. 15–46). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Trevarthen, C. & Aitkin, K. J. (2001). Infant intersubjectivity research, theory, and clinical applications. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 3–48.Google Scholar
Tronick, E., Als, H., & Adamson, L. (1979). Structure of early face-to-face communicative interactions. In Bullowa, M. (ed.), Before Speech: The Beginning of Interpersonal Communication (pp. 349–372). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Vela, R. M. (2014). The effect of severe stress on early brain development, attachment, and emotions: A psychoanatomical formulation. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 37, 519–534.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verschuren, K., Marcven, A., & Schoefs, V. (1996). The internal working model of the self: Attachment and competence in five-year-olds. Child Development, 67, 2493–2511.Google Scholar
Weaver, I. C., Cervoni, N., Champagne, F. A., D’Alessio, A. C., Sharma, S., Seckl, J. R., & Meaney, M. J. (2004). Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior. Nature Neuroscience, 7, 847–854.Google Scholar
Woolgar, M. & Scott, S. (2014). The negative consequences of over-diagnosing attachment disorders in adopted children: The importance of comprehensive formulations. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 19, 355–366.Google Scholar
Young, K. A., Liu, Y., Gobrogge, K. I., Wang, H., & Wang, Z. (2014). Oxytocin reverse amphetamine-induced deficits in social bonding: Evidence for an interaction with nucleus accumbens dopamine. Journal of Neuroscience, 34, 8499–8506.Google Scholar
Zalta, A. K. & Shankman, S. A. (2016). Conducting psychopathology prevention research in the RDoC era. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 23, 94–104.Google ScholarPubMed
Zeanah, C. H. & Boris, N. W. (2000). Disturbances and disorders of attachment in early childhood. In Zeanah, C. H. (ed.), Handbook of Infant Mental Health (2nd edn) (pp. 353–368). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Zeanah, C. H., Chesher, T., Boris, N. W., & the AACAP Committee on Quality Issues. (2016). Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with reactive attachment disorder and disinhibited social engagement disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 55, 990–1003.Google Scholar
Zeanah, C. H. & Gleason, M. M. (2010). Reactive Attachment Disorder: A Review for DSM-5. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Zeanah, C. H. & Gleason, M. M. (2015). Annual research review: Attachment disorders in early childhood: Clinical presentation, causes, correlates, and treatment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56, 207–222.Google Scholar
Zeanah, C. H., Scheeringa, M., Boris, N. W., Heller, S. S., Smyke, A. T., & Trapani, J. (2004). Reactive attachment disorder in maltreated toddlers. Child Abuse and Neglect, 28, 877–888.Google Scholar
Zeanah, C. H., Smyke, A. T., Koga, S. F., & Carlson, E. (2005). Attachment in institutionalized and community children in Romania. Child Development, 76, 1015–1028.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhang, T. Y. & Meaney, M. J. (2010). Epigenetics and the environmental regulation of the genome and its function. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 439–466.Google Scholar
Zilberstein, K. (2014). The use and limitations of attachment theory in child psychotherapy. Psychotherapy, 51, 93–103.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×