Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-lrblm Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-14T11:28:21.883Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

30 - Interventions for Improving Executive Functions during Development

Working Memory, Cognitive Flexibility, and Inhibition

from Part III - Education and School-Learning Domains

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 February 2022

By
Nikolaus Steinbeis  and
Claire Rosalie Smid
Edited by
Olivier Houdé  and
Grégoire Borst
Olivier Houdé
Affiliation:
Université de Paris V
Grégoire Borst
Affiliation:
Université de Paris V
Get access

Summary

Executive functions (EFs) comprise a set of cognitive skills harnessed for the regulation of behaviour and the pursuit of long-term goals. Sometimes referred to as cognitive control, this set of processes enables one to stay focused on a particular task and ignore distractions along the way (Diamond, 2013). There is some consensus that EFs can be decomposed into three core components, namely working memory, cognitive flexibility and inhibition (Miyake et al., 2000). Working memory (WM) allows the short-term retention and manipulation of information in mind (Baddeley, 1992); inhibitory control (IC) refers to the ability to suppress prepotent impulses and is also referred to as self-control or interference control (Logan et al., 1997); while cognitive flexibility (CF) is the ability to switch readily between different mental processes or task-demands (Eslinger & Grattan, 1993). These three EFs often operate jointly in a large variety of cognitive-development tasks. For the purposes of the present chapter, we also review the literature on attentional control (AC) (the ability to direct focus to the task at hand; Davidson et al., 2006).

Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Cognitive Development , pp. 623 - 643
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alloway, T. P., Bibile, V., & Lau, G. (2013). Computerized working memory training: Can it lead to gains in cognitive skills in students? Computers in Human Behavior, 29, 632–638.Google Scholar
Au, S., Tsai, D., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2015). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22, 366–377.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (1992). Working memory. Science, 255, 556–559.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 8, 47–89.Google Scholar
Beauchamp, K. G., Kahn, L. E., & Berkman, E. T. (2016). Does inhibitory control training transfer?: Behavioral and neural effects on an untrained emotion regulation task. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 11, 1374–1382.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, S. J., Hanson, C. A., Puffenberger, S. S., Benninger, K. L., & Benninger, W. B. (2010). A controlled trial of working memory training for children and adolescents with ADHD. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 39, 825–836.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergman Nutley, S., & Söderqvist, S. (2017). How is working memory training likely to influence academic performance? Current evidence and methodological considerations. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 69.Google Scholar
Berkman, E. T., Burklund, L., & Lieberman, M. D. (2009). Inhibitory spillover: Intentional motor inhibition produces incidental limbic inhibition via right inferior frontal cortex. NeuroImage, 47, 705–712.Google Scholar
Berkman, E. T., Kahn, L. E., & Merchant, J. S. (2014). Training-induced changes in inhibitory control network activity. Journal of Neuroscience, 34, 149–157.Google Scholar
Bigorra, A., Garolera, M., Guijarro, S., & Hervás, A. (2016). Long-term far-transfer effects of working memory training in children with ADHD: A randomized controlled trial. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 25, 853–867.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bogg, T., & Lasecki, L. (2015). Reliable gains? Evidence for substantially underpowered designs in studies of working memory training transfer to fluid intelligence. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Botvinick, M., & Braver, T. (2015). Motivation and cognitive control: From behavior to neural mechanism. The Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 83–113.Google Scholar
Buschkuehl, M., Hernandez-Garcia, L., Jaeggi, S. M., Bernard, J. A., & Jonides, J. (2014). Neural effects of short-term training on working memory. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 14, 147–160.Google Scholar
Chevalier, N. (2018). Willing to think hard? The subjective value of cognitive effort in children. Child Development, 89, 1283–1295.Google Scholar
Chevrier, A. D., Noseworthy, M. D., & Schachar, R. (2007). Dissociation of response inhibition and performance monitoring in the stop signal task using event‐related fMRI. Human Brain Mapping, 28, 1347–1358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, C. M., Lawlor-Savage, L., & Goghari, V. M. (2017). Working memory training in healthy young adults: Support for the null from a randomized comparison to active and passive control groups. PLoS ONE, 12, e0177707.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, J. R., & Poldrack, R. A. (2008). Automaticity in motor sequence learning does not impair response inhibition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15, 108–115.Google Scholar
Colom, R., Abad, F. J., Quiroga, M. Á., Shih, P. C., & Flores-Mendoza, C. (2008). Working memory and intelligence are highly related constructs, but why? Intelligence, 36, 584–606.Google Scholar
Conway, A. R., Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2003). Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 547–552.Google Scholar
Crone, E. A., Wendelken, C., Donohue, S., van Leijenhorst, L., & Bunge, S. A. (2006). Neurocognitive development of the ability to manipulate information in working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 103, 9315–9320.Google Scholar
D’esposito, M., Detre, J. A., Alsop, D. C., Shin, R. K., Atlas, S., & Grossman, M. (1995). The neural basis of the central executive system of working memory. Nature, 378, 279.Google Scholar
Dalley, J. W., Everitt, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (2011). Impulsivity, compulsivity, and top-down cognitive control. Neuron, 69, 680–694.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davidson, M. C., Amso, D., Anderson, L. C., & Diamond, A. (2006). Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4 to 13 years: Evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching. Neuropsychologia, 44, 2037–2078.Google Scholar
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. The Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168.Google Scholar
Dörrenbächer, S., Müller, P. M., Tröger, J., & Kray, J. (2014). Dissociable effects of game elements on motivation and cognition in a task-switching training in middle childhood. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1275.Google Scholar
Dunning, D. L., Holmes, J., & Gathercole, S. E. (2013). Does working memory training lead to generalized improvements in children with low working memory? A randomized controlled trial. Developmental Science, 16, 915–925.Google Scholar
Enge, S., Behnke, A., Fleischhauer, M., Kuttler, L., Kliegel, M., & Strobel, A. (2014). No evidence for true training and transfer effects after inhibitory control training in young healthy adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Learning Memory and Cognition, 40, 987–1001.Google Scholar
Engen, H., & Kanske, P. (2013). How working memory training improves emotion regulation: Neural efficiency, effort, and transfer effects. Journal of Neuroscience, 33, 12152–12153.Google Scholar
Ericcson, K. A., Chase, W. G., & Faloon, S. (1980). Acquisition of a memory skill. Science, 208, 1181–1182.Google Scholar
Eslinger, P. J., & Grattan, L. M. (1993). Frontal lobe and frontal-striatal substrates for different forms of human cognitive flexibility. Neuropsychologia, 31, 17–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Espinet, S. D., Anderson, J. E., & Zelazo, P. D. (2013). Reflection training improves executive function in preschool-age children: Behavioral and neural effects. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 4, 3–15.Google Scholar
Fernandez-Duque, D., Baird, J. A., & Posner, M. I. (2000). Executive attention and metacognitive regulation. Consciousness and Cognition, 9, 288–307.Google Scholar
Forssman, L., & Wass, S. V. (2018). Training basic visual attention leads to changes in responsiveness to social‐communicative cues in 9‐month‐olds. Child Development, 89, e199–e213.Google Scholar
Foster, J. L., Harrison, T. L., Hicks, K. L., Draheim, C., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2017). Do the effects of working memory training depend on baseline ability level? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 43, 1677.Google Scholar
Ganesan, K., & Steinbeis, N. (in press). Development and Plasticity of Executive Functions: A Value-Based Account. Current Opinion in Psychology.Google Scholar
Garavan, H., Ross, T., & Stein, E. (1999). Right hemispheric dominance of inhibitory control: An event-related functional MRI study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 96, 8301–8306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geier, C. F., & Luna, B. (2009). The maturation of incentive processing and cognitive control. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 93, 212–221.Google Scholar
Geier, C. F., & Luna, B. (2012). Developmental effects of incentives on response inhibition. Child Development, 83, 1262–1274.Google Scholar
Giedd, J. N., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries, N. O., Castellanos, F. X., Liu, H., Zijdenbos, A., … Rapoport, J. L. (1999). Brain development during childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal MRI study. Nature Neuroscience, 2, 861–863.Google Scholar
Giedd, J. N., & Rapoport, J. L. (2010). Structural MRI of pediatric brain development: What have we learned and where are we going? Neuron, 67, 728–734.Google Scholar
Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K. M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A. C., … Rapoport, J. L. (2004). Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 101, 8174–8179.Google Scholar
Green, C. T., Long, D. L., Green, D., Iosif, A.-M., Dixon, J. F., Miller, M. R., … Schweitzer, J. B. (2012). Will working memory training generalize to improve off-task behavior in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Neurotherapeutics, 9, 639–648.Google Scholar
Guitart-Masip, M., Nuys, Q. J. M., Fuentemilla, L., Dayan, P., Duzel, E., & Dolan, R. J. (2012). Go and no-go learning in reward and punishment: Interactions between affect and effect. NeuroImage, 62, 154–166.Google Scholar
Haber, S. N., & Knutson, B. (2010). The reward circuit: Linking primate anatomy and human imaging. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35, 4–26.Google Scholar
Haimovitz, K., & Dweck, C. S. (2017). The origins of children’s growth and fixed mindsets: New research and a new proposal. Child Development, 88, 1849–1859.Google Scholar
Heckman, J. J. (2006). Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children. Science, 312, 1900–1902.Google Scholar
Henry, L. A., Messer, D. J., & Nash, G. (2014). Testing for near and far transfer effects with a short, face‐to‐face adaptive working memory training intervention in typical children. Infant and Child Development, 23, 84–103.Google Scholar
Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., & Dunning, D. L. (2009). Adaptive training leads to sustained enhancement of poor working memory in children. Developmental Science, 12, F9–F15.Google Scholar
Houdé, O., Zago, L., Crivello, F., Moutier, S., Pineau, A., Mazoyer, B., & Tzourio-Mazoyer, N. (2001). Access to deductive logic depends on a right ventromedial prefrontal area devoted to emotion and feeling: Evidence from a training paradigm. NeuroImage, 14, 1486–1492.Google Scholar
Houde, O., Zago, L., Mellet, E., Moutier, S., Pineau, A., Mazoyer, B., & Tzourio-Mazoyer, N. (2000). Shifting from the perceptual brain to the logical brain: The neural impact of cognitive inhibition training. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 271–278.Google Scholar
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Perrig, W. J. (2008). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 105, 6829–6833.Google Scholar
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Shah, P. (2011). Short- and long-term benefits of cognitive training. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 108, 10081–10086.Google Scholar
Jaffard, M., Longcamp, M., Velay, J.-L., Anton, J.-L., Roth, M., Nazarian, B., & Boulinguez, P. (2008). Proactive inhibitory control of movement assessed by event-related fMRI. NeuroImage, 42, 1196–1206.Google Scholar
Jaušovec, N., & Jaušovec, K. (2012). Working memory training: Improving intelligence–changing brain activity. Brain and Cognition, 79, 96–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, M. H. (2001). Functional brain development in humans. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 475–483.Google Scholar
Johnson, M. H. (2011). Interactive specialization: A domain-general framework for human functional brain development? Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 1, 7–21.Google Scholar
Johnson, M. H. (2012). Executive function and developmental disorders: The flip side of the coin. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16, 454–457.Google Scholar
Johnstone, S. J., Roodenrys, S., Phillips, E., Watt, A. J., & Mantz, S. (2010). A pilot study of combined working memory and inhibition training for children with AD/HD. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 2, 31–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Judd, N., & Klingberg, T., (2021). Training spatial cognition enhances mathematical learning in a randomized study of 17000 children.Google Scholar
Karbach, J., Koenen, T., & Spengler, M. (2017). Who benefits the most? Individual differences in the transfer of executive control training across the lifespan. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1, 394–405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karbach, J., & Kray, J. (2009). How useful is executive control training? Age differences in near and far transfer of task-switching training. Developmental Science, 12, 978–990.Google Scholar
Karbach, J., & Kray, J. (2016). Executive functions. In Strobach, T., & Karbach, J. (eds.), Cognitive Training – An Overview of Features and Applications Executive Functions (pp. 93–103). Cham: Springer International.Google Scholar
Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1992). Beyond Modularity: A Developmental Perspective on Cognitive Science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Kim, C., Johnson, N. F., Cilles, S. E., & Gold, B. T. (2011). Common and distinct mechanisms of cognitive flexibility in prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 4771–4779.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klingberg, T. (2010). Training and plasticity of working memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14, 317–324.Google Scholar
Klingberg, T., Fernell, E., Olesen, P. J., Johnson, M., Gustafsson, P., Dahlström, K., … Westerberg, H. (2005). Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD – A randomized, controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 177–186.Google Scholar
Kloo, D., & Perner, J. (2003). Training transfer between card sorting and false belief understanding: Helping children apply conflicting descriptions. Child Development, 74, 1823–1839.Google Scholar
Kool, W., McGuire, J. T., Rosen, Z. B., & Botvinick, M. M. (2010). Decision making and the avoidance of cognitive demand. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 139, 665.Google Scholar
Kool, W., McGuire, J. T., Wang, G. J., & Botvinick, M. M. (2013). Neural and behavioral evidence for an intrinsic cost of self-control. PLoS ONE, 8, e72626.Google Scholar
Kray, J., Karbach, J., Haenig, S., & Freitag, C. (2012). Can task-switching training enhance executive control functioning in children with attention deficit/-hyperactivity disorder? Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 5, 180.Google Scholar
Kroesbergen, E. H., Van’t Noordende, J. E., & Kolkman, M. E. (2012). Number sense in low-performing kindergarten children: Effects of a working memory and an early math training. In Breznitz, Z., Rubinsten, O., Molfese, V. J., & Molfese, D. L. (eds.), Reading, Writing, Mathematics and the Developing Brain: Listening to Many Voices (pp. 295–313). Dordrecht: Springer.Google Scholar
Langer, N., von Bastian, C. C., Wirz, H., Oberauer, K., & Jäncke, L. (2013). The effects of working memory training on functional brain network efficiency. Cortex, 49, 2424–2438.Google Scholar
Leber, A. B., Turk-Browne, N. B., & Chun, M. M. (2008). Neural predictors of moment-to-moment fluctuations in cognitive flexibility. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 105, 13592–13597.Google Scholar
Lee Swanson, H., Howard, C. B., & Saez, L. (2006). Do different components of working memory underlie different subgroups of reading disabilities? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 252–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linzarini, A., Houdé, O., & Borst, G. (2017). Cognitive control outside of conscious awareness. Consciousness and Cognition, 53, 185–193.Google Scholar
Liu, Q., Zhu, X., Ziegler, A., & Shi, J. (2015). The effects of inhibitory control training for preschoolers on reasoning ability and neural activity. Scientific Reports, 5, 14200.Google Scholar
Logan, G. D., & Burkell, J. (1986). Dependence and independence in responding to double stimulation – A comparison of stop, change, and dual-task paradigms. Journal of Experimental Psychology–Human Perception and Performance, 12, 549–563.Google Scholar
Logan, G. D., Schachar, R. J., & Tannock, R. (1997). Impulsivity and inhibitory control. Psychological Science, 8, 60–64.Google Scholar
Logue, S. F., & Gould, T. J. (2014). The neural and genetic basis of executive function: Attention, cognitive flexibility, and response inhibition. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 123, 45–54.Google Scholar
Lövdén, M., Brehmer, Y., Li, S. C., & Lindenberger, U. (2012). Training-induced compensation versus magnification of individual differences in memory performance. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 141.Google Scholar
Luo, Y., Wang, J., Wu, H., Zhu, D., & Zhang, Y. (2013). Working-memory training improves developmental dyslexia in Chinese children. Neural Regeneration Research, 8, 452.Google ScholarPubMed
Maraver, M. J., Bajo, M. T., & Gomez-Ariza, C. J. (2016). Training on working memory and inhibitory control in young adults. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 10, 588.Google Scholar
McKendrick, R., Ayaz, H., Olmstead, R., & Parasuraman, R. (2014). Enhancing dual-task performance with verbal and spatial working memory training: Continuous monitoring of cerebral hemodynamics with NIRS. NeuroImage, 85, 1014–1026.Google Scholar
Melby-Lervag, M., & Hulme, C. (2013). Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review. Developmental Psychology, 49, 270–291.Google Scholar
Melby-Lervåg, M., Redick, T. S., & Hulme, C. (2016). Working memory training does not improve performance on measures of intelligence or other measures of “far transfer” evidence from a meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11, 512–534.Google Scholar
Metzler-Baddeley, C., Caeyenberghs, K., Foley, S., & Jones, D. K. (2016). Task complexity and location specific changes of cortical thickness in executive and salience networks after working memory training. NeuroImage, 130, 48–62.Google Scholar
Mills, K. L., Goddings, A. L., Herting, M. M., Meuwese, R., Blakemore, S. J., Crone, E. A., … Tamnes, C. K. (2016). Structural brain development between childhood and adulthood: Convergence across four longitudinal samples. Neuroimage, 141, 273–281.Google Scholar
Minear, M., Brasher, F., Guerrero, C. B., Brasher, M., Moore, A., & Sukeena, J. (2016). A simultaneous examination of two forms of working memory training: Evidence for near transfer only. Memory & Cognition, 44, 1014–1037.Google Scholar
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100.Google Scholar
Monchi, O., Petrides, M., Petre, V., Worsley, K., & Dagher, A. (2001). Wisconsin Card Sorting revisited: Distinct neural circuits participating in different stages of the task identified by event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Neuroscience, 21, 7733–7741.Google Scholar
Moreau, D. (2014). Making sense of discrepancies in working memory training experiments: A Monte Carlo simulation. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 8, 161.Google Scholar
Moreau, D., & Conway, A. R. (2014). The case for an ecological approach to cognitive training. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18, 334–336.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nemmi, F., Helander, E., Helenius, O., Almeida, R., Hassler, M., Räsänen, P., & Klingberg, T. (2016). Behavior and neuroimaging at baseline predict individual response to combined mathematical and working memory training in children. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 20, 43–51.Google Scholar
O’Reilly, R. C., & Frank, M. J. (2006). Making working memory work: A computational model of learning in the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Neural Computation, 18, 283–328.Google Scholar
Olesen, P. J., Macoveanu, J., Tegnér, J., & Klingberg, T. (2006). Brain activity related to working memory and distraction in children and adults. Cerebral Cortex, 17, 1047–1054.Google Scholar
Olesen, P. J., Westerberg, H., & Klingberg, T. (2004). Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory. Nature Neuroscience, 7, 75–79.Google Scholar
Oliver, A., Johnson, M. H., Karmiloff-Smith, A., & Pennington, B. (2000). Deviations in the emergence of representations: A neuroconstructivist framework for analysing developmental disorders. Developmental Science, 3, 1–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Owen, A. M., McMillan, K. M., Laird, A. R., & Bullmore, E. (2005). N‐back working memory paradigm: A meta‐analysis of normative functional neuroimaging studies. Human Brain Mapping, 25, 46–59.Google Scholar
Padmala, S., & Pessoa, L. (2011). Reward reduces conflict by enhancing attentional control and biasing visual cortical processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23, 3419–3432.Google Scholar
Padmanabhan, A., Geier, C. F., Ordaz, S. J., Teslovich, T., & Luna, B. (2011). Developmental changes in brain function underlying the influence of reward processing on inhibitory control. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 1, 517–529.Google Scholar
Passolunghi, M. C., & Costa, H. M. (2016). Working memory and early numeracy training in preschool children. Child Neuropsychology, 22, 81–98.Google Scholar
Peijnenborgh, J. C., Hurks, P. M., Aldenkamp, A. P., Vles, J. S., & Hendriksen, J. G. (2016). Efficacy of working memory training in children and adolescents with learning disabilities: A review study and meta-analysis. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 26, 645–672.Google Scholar
Peng, J., Mo, L., Huang, P., & Zhou, Y. (2017). The effects of working memory training on improving fluid intelligence of children during early childhood. Cognitive Development, 43, 224–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porter, L., Bailey-Jones, C., Priudokaite, G., Allen, S., Wood, K., Stiles, K., … Lawrence, N. S. (2018). From cookies to carrots; the effect of inhibitory control training on children’s snack selections. Appetite, 124, 111–123.Google Scholar
Redick, T. S. (2015). Working memory training and interpreting interactions in intelligence interventions. Intelligence, 50, 14–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Redick, T. S., Shipstead, Z., Harrison, T. L., Hicks, K. L., Fried, D. E., Hambrick, D. Z., … Engle, R. W. (2013). No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: A randomized, placebo-controlled study. Journal of Experimental Psychology–General, 142, 359–379.Google Scholar
Redick, T. S., Shipstead, Z., Wiemers, E. A., Melby-Lervåg, M., & Hulme, C. (2015). What’s working in working memory training? An educational perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 27, 617–633.Google Scholar
Roberts, G., Quach, J., Spencer-Smith, M., Anderson, P. J., Gathercole, S., Gold, L., … Wake, M. (2016). Academic outcomes 2 years after working memory training for children with low working memory: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Pediatrics, 170, e154568.Google Scholar
Rubia, K., Russell, T., Overmeyer, S., Brammer, M. J., Bullmore, E. T., Sharma, T., … Andrew, C. M. (2001). Mapping motor inhibition: Conjunctive brain activations across different versions of go/no-go and stop tasks. NeuroImage, 13, 250–261.Google Scholar
Rueda, M. R., Rothbart, M. K., McCandliss, B. D., Saccomanno, L., & Posner, M. I. (2005). Training, maturation, and genetic influences on the development of executive attention. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 102, 14931–14936.Google Scholar
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78.Google Scholar
Sala, G., & Gobet, F. (2017). Working memory training in typically developing children: A meta-analysis of the available evidence. Developmental Psychology, 53, 671.Google Scholar
Schwaighofer, M., Fischer, F., & Bühner, M. (2015). Does working memory training transfer? A meta-analysis including training conditions as moderators. Educational Psychologist, 50, 138–166.Google Scholar
Schweizer, S., Grahn, J., Hampshire, A., Mobbs, D., & Dalgleish, T. (2013). Training the emotional brain: Improving affective control through emotional working memory training. Journal of Neuroscience, 33, 5301–5311.Google Scholar
Shonkoff, J. P., Garner, A. S., Fa, C. P. A. C., Depe, C. E. C. A., & Pediat, S. D. B. (2012). The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress. Pediatrics, 129, E232–E246.Google Scholar
Shonkoff, J. P., & Levitt, P. (2010). Neuroscience and the future of early childhood policy: Moving from why to what and how. Neuron, 67, 689–691.Google Scholar
Simmonds, D. J., Pekar, J. J., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2008). Meta-analysis of Go/No-go tasks demonstrating that fMRI activation associated with response inhibition is task-dependent. Neuropsychologia, 46, 224–232.Google Scholar
Smid, C.., Karbach, J., & Steinbeis, N. (2020). Towards a science of effective cognitive training. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 29, 531–537.Google Scholar
Söderqvist, S., Bergman Nutley, S., Ottersen, J., Grill, K. M., & Klingberg, T. (2012). Computerized training of non-verbal reasoning and working memory in children with intellectual disability. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Söderqvist, S., Matsson, H., Peyrard-Janvid, M., Kere, J., & Klingberg, T. (2014). Polymorphisms in the dopamine receptor 2 gene region influence improvements during working memory training in children and adolescents. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 26, 54–62.Google Scholar
Soveri, A., Antfolk, J., Karlsson, L., Salo, B., & Laine, M. (2017). Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24, 1077–1096.Google Scholar
Strang, N. M., & Pollak, S. D. (2014). Developmental continuity in reward-related enhancement of cognitive control. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 10, 34–43.Google Scholar
Studer-Luethi, B., Bauer, C., & Perrig, W. J. (2016). Working memory training in children: Effectiveness depends on temperament. Memory & Cognition, 44, 171–186.Google Scholar
Studer-Luethi, B., Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., & Perrig, W. J. (2012). Influence of neuroticism and conscientiousness on working memory training outcome. Personality and Individual Differences, 53, 44–49.Google Scholar
Swick, D., Ashley, V., & Turken, U. (2011). Are the neural correlates of stopping and not going identical? Quantitative meta-analysis of two response inhibition tasks. Neuroimage, 56, 1655–1665.Google Scholar
Takeuchi, H., Sekiguchi, A., Taki, Y., Yokoyama, S., Yomogida, Y., Komuro, N., … Kawashima, R. (2010). Training of working memory impacts structural connectivity. Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 3297–3303.Google Scholar
Thompson, T. W., Waskom, M. L., Garel, K.-L. A., Cardenas-Iniguez, C., Reynolds, G. O., Winter, R., … Alvarez, G. A. (2013). Failure of working memory training to enhance cognition or intelligence. PLoS ONE, 8, e63614.Google Scholar
Thorell, L. B., Lindqvist, S., Bergman Nutley, S., Bohlin, G., & Klingberg, T. (2009). Training and transfer effects of executive functions in preschool children. Developmental Science, 12, 106–113.Google Scholar
Titz, C., & Karbach, J. (2014). Working memory and executive functions: Effects of training on academic achievement. Psychological Research, 78, 852–868.Google Scholar
Verbruggen, F., Adams, R., & Chambers, C. D. (2012). Proactive motor control reduces monetary risk taking in gambling. Psychological Science, 23, 805–815.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verbruggen, F., Adams, R. C., van’t Wout, F., Stevens, T., McLaren, I. P., & Chambers, C. D. (2013). Are the effects of response inhibition on gambling long-lasting? PLoS ONE, 8, e70155.Google Scholar
Verbruggen, F., & Logan, G. D. (2008). Response inhibition in the stop-signal paradigm. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12, 418–424.Google Scholar
Verbruggen, F., & Logan, G. D. (2009). Proactive adjustments of response strategies in the Stop-signal paradigm. Journal of Experimental Psychology–Human Perception and Performance, 35, 835–854.Google Scholar
Verbruggen, F., McLaren, I. P., & Chambers, C. D. (2014). Banishing the control homunculi in studies of action control and behavior change. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9, 497–524.Google Scholar
Vogel, E. K., & Machizawa, M. G. (2004). Neural activity predicts individual differences in visual working memory capacity. Nature, 428, 748–751.Google Scholar
Wass, S., Porayska-Pomsta, K., & Johnson, M. H. (2011). Training attentional control in infancy. Current Biology, 21, 1543–1547.Google Scholar
Wass, S., Scerif, G., & Johnson, M. H. (2012). Training attentional control and working memory – Is younger, better? Developmental Review, 32, 360–387.Google Scholar
Westbrook, A., Kester, D., & Braver, T. S. (2013). What is the subjective cost of cognitive effort? Load, trait, and aging effects revealed by economic preference. PLoS ONE, 8, e68210.Google Scholar
Wong, A. S., He, M. Y., & Chan, R. W. (2014). Effectiveness of computerized working memory training program in Chinese community settings for children with poor working memory. Journal of Attention Disorders, 18, 318–330.Google Scholar
Woud, M. L., Becker, E. S., & Rinck, M. (2011). “Implicit evaluation bias induced by approach and avoidance”. Corrigendum. Cognition & Emotion, 25, 1309–1310.Google Scholar
Woud, M. L., Maas, J., Becker, E. S., & Rinck, M. (2013). Make the manikin move: Symbolic approach-avoidance responses affect implicit and explicit face evaluations. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25, 738–744.Google Scholar
Yuan, P., & Raz, N. (2014). Prefrontal cortex and executive functions in healthy adults: A meta-analysis of structural neuroimaging studies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 42, 180–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zelazo, P. D., & Frye, D. (1997). Cognitive complexity and control: A theory of the development of deliberate reasoning and intentional action. In Stamenov, M. (ed.), Language Structure, Discourse and the Access to Consciousness (pp. 113–153). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Zhao, X., Chen, L., & Maes, J. H. (2018). Training and transfer effects of response inhibition training in children and adults. Developmental Science, 21, e12511.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×