Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-8bhkd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T08:00:37.776Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

6 - Sexual Coercion and Rape

from Part I - Precopulatory Adaptations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 June 2022

By
Andrew M. Holub  and
Gavin Vance
Edited by
Todd K. Shackelford
Todd K. Shackelford
Affiliation:
Oakland University, Michigan
Get access

Summary

The imbalance of minimum obligatory parental investment between sexes has imposed distinct and often conflicting adaptive problems for males and females. One such adaptive problem faced by the less investing sex (males) is the acquisition of more reproductive opportunities with members of the more investing sex. One potential solution to this problem is the use of sexual coercion or force to nullify female mate choice. Although males of many species have been observed to employ coercion or force to achieve copulation, the extent to which human sexual coercion and rape are evolved behaviors remains an open question. The present chapter is a brief review of the comparative literature, as well as empirical research from a wide range of domains within human psychology, weighing support for both the adaptation and byproduct theories of rape in humans. The similarities in the sexually coercive behaviors of nonhuman primates, heritability of sexual offending, and the potential adaptive benefit of sexual coercion across various mating contexts provide considerable support for the evolution of rape in humans. Nevertheless, support in favor of the adaptation theory of rape is not necessarily exclusionary to the byproduct theory. Therefore, there remains a need for additional evolutionary research to contribute to this open question.

Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Sexual Psychology , pp. 144 - 164
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adler, M. (2009). Sexual conflict in waterfowl: Why do females resist extrapair copulations? Behavioral Ecology, 21, 182–192.Google Scholar
Allen, G. R., & Simmons, L. W. (1996). Coercive mating, fluctuating asymmetry and male mating success in the dung fly Sepsis cynipsea. Animal Behaviour, 52, 737–741.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amowitz, L. L., Reis, C., Lyons, K. H., Vann, B., Mansaray, B., Akinsulure-Smith, A. M., … & Iacopino, V. (2002). Prevalence of war-related sexual violence and other human rights abuses among internally displaced persons in Sierra Leone. Jama, 287, 513–521.Google Scholar
Apostolou, M. (2013). The evolution of rape: The fitness benefits and costs of a forced-sex mating strategy in an evolutionary context. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18(5), 484–490.Google Scholar
Arnqvist, G., & Rowe, L. (2013). Sexual conflict. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Barash, D. P. (1977). Sociobiology of rape in mallards (Anas platyrhynchos): Response of the mated male. Science, 197, 788–789.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barbaree, H. E., Marshall, W. L., & Lanthier, R. D. (1979). Deviant sexual arousal in rapists. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 17, 215–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barbaro, N., & Shackelford, T. K. (2016). Female-directed violence as a form of sexual coercion in humans (Homo sapiens). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 130(4), 321–327.Google Scholar
Basile, K. C. (2002). Prevalence of wife rape and other intimate partner sexual coercion in a nationally representative sample of women. Violence and Victims, 17, 511–524.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Basow, S. A., & Minieri, A. (2011). “You owe me”: Effects of date cost, who pays, participant gender, and rape myth beliefs on perceptions of rape. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 479–497.Google Scholar
Bateman, A. J. (1948). Intrasexual selection in Drosophila. Heredity, 2, 349–368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breuer, T., Robbins, A. M., & Robbins, M. M. (2016). Sexual coercion and courtship by male western gorillas. Primates, 57, 29–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buss, D. M. (1989). Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12, 1–14.Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (2019). Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind (6th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Buss, D. M., Haselton, M. G., Shackelford, T. K., Bleske, A. L., & Wakefield, J. C. (1998). Adaptation, exaptations, and spandrels. American Psychologist, 53, 533–548.Google Scholar
Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review, 100, 204–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Byers, E. S., & Eno, R. J. (1992). Predicting men’s sexual coercion and aggression from attitudes, dating history, and sexual response. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality, 4, 55–70.Google Scholar
Cassini, M. H. (2021). Sexual aggression in mammals. Mammal Review, 51, 247–255.Google Scholar
Chagnon, N. A. (1988). Life histories, blood revenge, and warfare in a tribal population. Science, 239, 985–992.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, C. Y., Raine, A., Chou, K. H., Chen, I. Y., Hung, D., & Lin, C. P. (2016). Abnormal white matter integrity in rapists as indicated by diffusion tensor imaging. BMC Neuroscience, 17, 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clutton-Brock, T. H., & Parker, G. A. (1995). Sexual coercion in animal societies. Animal Behaviour, 49, 1345–1365.Google Scholar
Coleman, G. D. (2015). Pregnancy after rape. International Journal of Women’s Health and Wellness, 1, 1–4.Google Scholar
Conley, A. H., Overstreet, C. M., Hawn, S. E., Kendler, K. S., Dick, D. M., & Amstadter, A. B. (2017). Prevalence and predictors of sexual assault among a college sample. Journal of American College Health, 65, 41–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crawford, C., & Galdikas, B. M. (1986). Rape in non-human animals: An evolutionary perspective. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 27, 215–230.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1859). On the origin of species by means of natural selection: Or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. London: John Murray.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1871). The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. London: John Murray.Google Scholar
Eberhard, W. G. (1996). Female control: Sexual selection by cryptic female choice. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Eberhard, W. G. (2002). The function of female resistance behavior: Intromission by male coercion vs. female cooperation in sepsis flies (Diptera: Sepsidae). Revista de Biología Tropical, 50, 485–505.Google ScholarPubMed
Eberhard, W. G. (2006). Sexually antagonistic coevolution in insects is associated with only limited morphological diversity. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 19, 657–281.Google Scholar
Elliott, D. M., Mok, D. S., & Briere, J. (2004). Adult sexual assault: Prevalence, symptomatology, and sex differences in the general population. Journal of Traumatic Stress: Official Publication of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 17(3), 203–211.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, L., Widmayer, A., & Palmer, C. T. (2009). Perpetrators of sexual assault continuing to have sex with their victims following the initial assault: Evidence for evolved reproductive strategies. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 53, 454–463.Google Scholar
Emlen, S. T., & Wrege, P. H. (1986). Forced copulations, and intraspecific parasitism: Two costs of social living in the white-fronted bee-eater. Ethology, 71, 2–29.Google Scholar
Fairbairn, D. J., Vermette, R., Kapoor, N. N., & Zahiri, N. (2003). Functional morphology of sexually selected genitalia in the water strider Aquarius remigis. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 81, 400–413.Google Scholar
Farr, J. A., Travis, J., & Trexler, J. C. (1986). Behavioural allometry and interdemic variation in sexual behaviour of the sailfin molly, Poecilia latipinna (Pisces: Poeciliidae). Animal Behaviour, 34, 497–509.Google Scholar
Flatt, J.-P. (1995). Use and storage of carbohydrate and fat. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 61, 952S–959S.Google Scholar
Frieze, I. H. (1983). Investigating the causes and consequences of marital rape. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 8, 532–553.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gage, M. J. G., Parker, G. A., Nylin, S., & Wiklund, C. (2002). Sexual selection and speciation in mammals, butterflies and spiders. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 269, 2309–2316.Google Scholar
Gibson, K. N., Vick, L. G., Palma, A. C., Carrasco, F. M., Taub, D., & Ramos-Fernandez, G. (2008). Intra-community infanticide and forced copulation in spider monkeys: A multi-site comparison between Cocha Cashu, Peru and Punta Laguna, Mexico. American Journal of Primatology, 70, 485–489.Google Scholar
Glowacki, L., & Wrangham, R. (2015). Warfare and reproductive success in a tribal population. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112, 348–353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goetz, A. T., & Shackelford, T. K. (2006). Sexual coercion and forced in-pair copulation as sperm competition tactics in humans. Human Nature, 17, 265–282.Google Scholar
Goetz, A. T., & Shackelford, T. K. (2009). Sexual coercion in intimate relationships: A comparative analysis of the effects of women’s infidelity and men’s dominance and control. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38, 226–234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gogliath, M., Ribeiro, L. B., & Freire, E. M. X. (2010). Forced copulation attempt in the blue-tailed lizard, Micrablepharus maximiliani (Reinhardt & Luetken, 1862) (Squamata, Gymnophthalmidae) in the Caatinga of Northeastern Brazil. Biota Neotropica, 10, 347–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottschall, J. (2004). Explaining wartime rape. Journal of Sex Research, 41, 129–136.Google Scholar
Gottschall, J. A., & Gottschall, T. A. (2003). Are per-incident rape pregnancy rates higher than per-incident consensual pregnancy rates? Human Nature, 14, 1–20.Google Scholar
Hagen, R. (1979). The bio-sexual factor. New York, NY: Doubleday & Co.Google Scholar
Hamilton, R. (2008). The Darwinian cage: Evolutionary psychology as moral science. Theory, Culture & Society, 25, 105–125.Google Scholar
Hamilton, W. D. (1964a). The genetical evolution of social behavior, I. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7, 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, W. D. (1964b). The genetical evolution of social behavior, II. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7, 17–52.Google Scholar
Harris, H. S., Oates, S. C., Staedler, M. M., Tinker, M. T., Jessup, D. A., Harvey, J. T., & Miller, M. A. (2010). Lesions and behavior associated with forced copulation of juvenile Pacific harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardsi) by southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis). Aquatic Mammals, 36, 219–229.Google Scholar
Hogg, J. T. (1988). Copulatory tactics in relation to sperm competition in Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 22, 49–59.Google Scholar
Hohoff, C., Franzen, K., & Sachser, N. (2003). Female choice in a promiscuous wild guinea pig, the yellow-toothed cavy (Galea musteloides). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 53, 341–349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holand, Ø., Weladji, R. B., Røed, K. H., Gjøstein, H., Kumpula, J., Gaillard, J.-M., … & Nieminen, M. (2006). Male age structure influences females’ mass change during rut in a polygynous ungulate: The reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 59, 682–688.Google Scholar
Holmes, M. M., Resnick, H. S., Kilpatrick, D. G., & Best, C. L. (1996). Rape-related pregnancy: Estimates and descriptive characteristics from a national sample of women. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 175, 320–325.Google Scholar
Hosken, D. J., & House, C. M. (2011). Sexual selection. Current Biology, 21, R62–R65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howes, R. J. (1998). Plethysmographic assessment of incarcerated nonsexual offenders: A comparison with rapists. Sexual Abuse, 10, 183–194.Google Scholar
Jewkes, R., Sikweyiya, Y., Morrell, R., & Dunkle, K. (2011). Gender inequitable masculinity and sexual entitlement in rape perpetration South Africa: Findings of a cross-sectional study. PLoS One, 6, e29590. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029590Google Scholar
Knott, C. D., Thompson, M. E., Stumpf, R. M., & McIntyre, M. H. (2010). Female reproductive strategies in orangutans, evidence for female choice and counterstrategies to infanticide in a species with frequent sexual coercion. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 277, 105–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lalumière, M. L., Chalmers, L. J., Quinsey, V. L., & Seto, M. C. (1996). A test of the mate deprivation hypothesis of sexual coercion. Ethology and Sociobiology, 17, 299–318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lalumière, M. L., Harris, G. T., Quinsey, V. L., & Rice, M. E. (2005). The causes of rape: Understanding individual differences in male propensity for sexual aggression. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Långström, N., Babchishin, K. M., Fazel, S., Lichtenstein, P., & Frisell, T. (2015). Sexual offending runs in families: A 37-year nationwide study. International Journal of Epidemiology, 44, 713–720.Google Scholar
Le Boeuf, B. J., & Mesnick, S. (1991). Sexual behavior of male northern elephant seals: I. Lethal injuries to adult females. Behaviour, 116, 143–162.Google Scholar
Magurran, A. E. (1998). Population differentiation without speciation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 353, 275–286.Google Scholar
Malamuth, N., & Thornhill, N. W. (1994). Hostile masculinity, sexual aggression, and gender-biased domineeringness in conversations. Aggressive Behavior, 20, 185–193.3.0.CO;2-3>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manson, J. H., Wrangham, R. W., Boone, J. L., Chapais, B., Dunbar, R. I. M., Ember, C. R., … & Worthman, C. M. (1991). Intergroup aggression in chimpanzees and humans [and comments and replies]. Current Anthropology, 32, 369–390.Google Scholar
Matsumoto, Y., & Takegaki, T. (2016). Male coercive mating in externally fertilizing species: Male coercion, female reluctance and explanation for female acceptance. Scientific Reports, 6, 1–9.Google Scholar
Mayr, E. (1961). Cause and effect in biology. Science, 134, 1501–1506.Google Scholar
McKibbin, W. F., Shackelford, T. K., Goetz, A. T., & Starratt, V. G. (2008). Evolutionary psychological perspectives on rape. In Duntley, J. & Shackelford, T. K. (Eds.), Evolutionary forensic psychology (pp. 101–120). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKibbin, W. F., Starratt, V. G., Shackelford, T. K., & Goetz, A. T. (2011). Perceived risk of female infidelity moderates the relationship between objective risk of female infidelity and sexual coercion in humans (Homo sapiens). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 125(3), 370–373.Google Scholar
McKinney, F., & Evarts, S. (1998). Sexual coercion in waterfowl and other birds. Ornithological Monographs, 49, 163–195.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLain, D. K., & Pratt, A. E. (1999). The cost of sexual coercion and heterospecific sexual harassment on the fecundity of a host-specific, seed-eating insect (Neacoryphus bicrucis). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 46, 164–170.Google Scholar
Mellins, C. A., Walsh, K., Sarvet, A. L., Wall, M., Gilbert, L., Santelli, , J. S. … & Hirsch, J. S. (2017). Sexual assault incidents among college undergraduates: Prevalence and factors associated with risk. PLoS One, 12, e0186471. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0186471Google Scholar
Mineau, P., & Cooke, F. (1979). Rape in the lesser snow goose. Behaviour, 70, 280–291.Google Scholar
Mineau, P., McKinney, F., & Derrickson, S. R. (1983). Forced copulation in waterfowl. Behaviour, 86, 250–293.Google Scholar
Mitani, J. C. (1985). Mating behaviour of male orangutans in the Kutai Game Reserve, Indonesia. Animal Behaviour, 33, 392–402.Google Scholar
Olsson, M. (1995). Forced copulation and costly female resistance behavior in the Lake Eyre Dragon, Ctenophorus maculosus. Herpetologica, 51, 19–24.Google Scholar
Ouimette, P., & Riggs, D. (1998). Testing a mediational model of sexually aggressive behavior in nonincarcerated perpetrators. Violence and Victims, 13, 117–130.Google Scholar
Painter, K., & Farrington, D. P. (1998). Marital violence in Great Britain and its relationship to marital and non-marital rape. International Review of Victimology, 5, 257–276.Google Scholar
Palmer, C. T. (1989a). Is rape a cultural universal? A re-examination of the ethnographic data. Ethnology, 28, 1–16.Google Scholar
Palmer, C. T. (1989b). Rape in nonhuman animal species: Definitions, evidence, and implications. The Journal of Sex Research, 26, 355–374.Google Scholar
Pandit, S. A., Pradhan, G. R., Balashov, H., & Van Schaik, C. P. (2016). The conditions favoring between-community raiding in chimpanzees, bonobos, and human foragers. Human Nature, 27, 141–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parker, G. A. (1979). Sexual selection and sexual conflict. In Blum, M. S. & Blum, N. A. (Eds.), Sexual selection and reproductive competition in insects (pp. 123–166). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Parker, G. A. (2006). Sexual selection over mating and fertilization: An overview. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 361, 235–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., Knopik, V. S., & Neiderhiser, J. M. (2016). Top 10 replicated findings from behavioral genetics. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11, 3–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Polo, P., Hernández-Lloreda, V., & Colmenares, F. (2014). Male takeovers are reproductively costly to females in hamadryas baboons: A test of the sexual coercion hypothesis. PLoS ONE, 9, e90996. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090996CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quinsey, V. L., & Lalumière, M. L. (1995). Evolutionary perspectives on sexual offending. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 7, 301–315.Google Scholar
Russell, D. E. (1984). Sexual exploitation: Rape, child sexual abuse, and workplace harassment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Scott, E. M., Mann, J., Watson-Capps, J., Sargeant, B. L., & Connor, R. C. (2005). Aggression in bottlenose dolphins: Evidence for sexual coercion, male-male competition, and female tolerance through analysis of tooth-rake marks and behaviour. Behaviour, 142, 21–44.Google Scholar
Seto, M. C., & Barbaree, H. E. (1993). Victim blame and sexual arousal to rape cues in rapists and nonoffenders. Annals of Sex Research, 6, 167–183.Google Scholar
Shackelford, T. K., & Goetz, A. T. (2007). Adaptation to sperm competition in humans. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 47–50.Google Scholar
Smuts, B. B., & Smuts, R. W. (1993). Male aggression and sexual coercion of females in nonhuman primates and other mammals: Evidence and theoretical implications. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 22, 1–63.Google Scholar
Soltis, J., Mitsunaga, F., Shimizu, K., Nozaki, M., Yanagihara, Y., Domingo-Roura, X., & Takenaka, O. (1997). Sexual selection in Japanese macaques II: Female mate choice and male–male competition. Animal Behaviour, 54, 737–746.Google Scholar
Starratt, V. G., Goetz, A. T., Shackelford, T. K., & Stewart-Williams, S. (2008). Men’s partner-directed insults and sexual coercion in intimate relationships. Journal of Family Violence, 23, 315–323.Google Scholar
Starratt, V. G., Popp, D., & Shackelford, T. K. (2008). Not all men are sexually coercive: A preliminary investigation of the moderating effect of mate desirability on the relationship between female infidelity and male sexual coercion. Personality and Individual Differences, 45, 10–14.Google Scholar
Stumpf, R. M., & Boesch, C. (2010). Male aggression and sexual coercion in wild West African chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus. Animal Behaviour, 79, 333–342.Google Scholar
Sundaresan, S. R., Fischhoff, I. R., & Rubenstein, D. I. (2007). Male harassment influences female movements and associations in Grevy’s zebra (Equus grevyi). Behavioral Ecology, 18, 860–865.Google Scholar
Symons, D. (1979). The evolution of human sexuality. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Symons, D. (1992). On the use and misuse of Darwinism in the study of human behavior. In Barkow, J. H., Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (Eds.), The adapted mind (pp. 137–159). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Thomae, M., & Viki, G. T. (2013). Why did the woman cross the road? The effect of sexist humor on men’s rape proclivity. Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology, 7, 250–269.Google Scholar
Thornhill, R. (1980). Rape in Panorpa scorpion flies and a general rape hypothesis. Animal Behaviour, 28, 52–59.Google Scholar
Thornhill, R. (1981). Panorpa (Mecopter: Panorpidae) scorpionflies: Systems for understanding resource-defense polygyny and alternative male reproductive efforts. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 12, 355–386.Google Scholar
Thornhill, R., & Palmer, C. T. (2000). A natural history of rape: Biological bases of sexual coercion. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Thornhill, R., & Palmer, C. T. (2002). Rape and evolution: A reply to our critics. Psychology, Evolution & Gender, 4, 283–296.Google Scholar
Thornhill, R., & Thornhill, N. W. (1983). Human rape: An evolutionary analysis. Ethology and Sociobiology, 4, 137–173.Google Scholar
Thornhill, R., & Thornhill, N. W. (1992). The evolutionary psychology of men’s coercive sexuality. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 15, 363–421.Google Scholar
Travis, C. B. (Ed.). (2003). Evolution, gender, and rape. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In Campbell, B. (Ed.), Sexual selection and the descent of man, 1871–1971 (pp. 136–179). Chicago, IL: Aldine.Google Scholar
Vandermassen, G. (2011). Evolution and rape: A feminist Darwinian perspective. Sex Roles, 64, 732–747.Google Scholar
Watson-Capps, J. J. (2009). Evolution of sexual coercion with respect to sexual selection and sexual conflict theory. In Muller, M. N. & Wrangham, R. W. (Eds.), Sexual coercion in primates and humans: An evolutionary perspective on male aggression against females. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Watts, C., Keogh, E., Ndlovu, M., & Kwaramba, R. (1998). Withholding of sex and forced sex: Dimensions of violence against Zimbabwean women. Reproductive Health Matters, 6, 57–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watts, D., & Mitani, J. (2001). Boundary patrols and intergroup encounters in wild chimpanzees. Behaviour, 138, 299–327.Google Scholar
Watts, D. P., Muller, M., Amsler, S. J., Mbabazi, G., & Mitani, J. C. (2006). Lethal intergroup aggression by chimpanzees in Kibale National Park, Uganda. American Journal of Primatology: Official Journal of the American Society of Primatologists, 68, 161–180.Google Scholar
Wegner, R., Abbey, A., Pierce, J., Pegram, S. E., & Woerner, J. (2015). Sexual assault perpetrators’ justifications for their actions: Relationships to rape supportive attitudes, incident characteristics, and future perpetration. Violence Against Women, 21, 1018–1037.Google Scholar
Werschkul, D. F. (1982). Nesting ecology of the little blue heron: Promiscuous behavior. Condor, 84, 381–384.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, G. C. (1966). Adaptation and natural selection: A critique of some current evolutionary thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Wilson, M., & Daly, M. (1992). The man who mistook his wife for a chattel. In Barkow, J. H., Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture, (pp. 289–322). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., Resnick, H. S., McCauley, J. L., Amstadter, A. B., Kilpatrick, D. G., & Ruggiero, K. J. (2011). Is reporting of rape on the rise? A comparison of women with reported versus unreported rape experiences in the National Women’s Study-Replication. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 807–832.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×