Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-xbtfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T06:09:41.120Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

4 - Section I – The efficacy and safety of electroconvulsive therapy

from Part II - Summary of treatment modalities in psychiatric disorders

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 May 2010

By
Daniel Maixner  and
Michael A. Taylor
Edited by
Peter Tyrer  and
Kenneth R. Silk
Daniel Maixner
Affiliation:
University of Michigan Dept of Psychiatry Ann Arbor, MI USA
Michael A. Taylor
Affiliation:
University of Michigan Medical Center Psychiatry 9C USA
Peter Tyrer
Affiliation:
Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London
Kenneth R. Silk
Affiliation:
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Get access

Summary

Editor's note

Electroconvulsive therapy has the longest track record of a successful treatment in psychiatry and it would be unwise to cast it aside. Maixner and Taylor do the opposite. They are enthusiasts for the treatment and feel it is significantly underused. They give most attention to bilateral ECT and in terms of efficacy there is no doubt that this is more effective than unilateral treatment despite the advantages unilateral treatment has for likely cognitive disturbance. For more severe forms of depression bilateral ECT has definite advantages and it is in this group, both in general and old age psychiatry, that it is most widely recommended. Other disorders, apart from catatonia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome, have a much lower evidence base for treatment. Electroconvulsive treatment in the future is likely to come under threat from other newer physical treatments involving magnetic manipulations (see Chapter 4, Part II) and many more comparisons are needed between ECT and these new treatments to determine the therapeutic place of each. This chapter does not have a UK author; the differences between UK and Europe and the USA are not great, but a comparison can be made by reading.

Introduction

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is the oldest continuous medical treatment for psychiatric disease. When introduced in 1938 it achieved remissions that were considered miraculous in patients who had been ill in mental hospitals for years (Endler, 1988). (Also see pp. 27–31.) As with all successful treatments it was eventually used beyond its understood indications.

Type
Chapter
Information
Cambridge Textbook of Effective Treatments in Psychiatry , pp. 57 - 82
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aarsland, D., Larsen, J. P., Waage, O. & Langeveld, J. H. (1997). Maintenance electroconvulsive therapy for Parkinson's disease. Convulsive Therapy, 13, 274–7.Google Scholar
Abrams, R. (1997). The mortality rate with ECT. Convulsive Therapy, 13, 125–7.Google Scholar
Abrams, R. (2002). Electroconvulsive Therapy, 4th edn. New York: Oxford University Press.
Abrams, R. & Taylor, M. A. (1985). A prospective follow-up study of cognitive functions after ECT. Convulsive Therapy, 1, 4–9.Google Scholar
Addington, D., Addington, J. M. & Ens, I. (1993). Mentally retarded patients on general hospital psychiatric units. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 38, 134–42.Google Scholar
AETMIS (2002). The Use of Electroconvulsive Therapy in Quebec. Montreal: AETMIS.
Albala, A. A., Greden, J. F., Tarika, J. & Carroll, B. J. (1981). Changes in serial dexamethasone suppression tests among unipolar depressive patients receiving electroconvulsive treatment. Biological Psychiatry, 16, 551–60.Google Scholar
Alexopoulos, G. S., Shamoian, C. J., Lucas, J., Weiser, N. & Berger, H. (1984). Medical problems of geriatric psychiatric patients and younger controls during electroconvulsive therapy. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 32, 651–4.Google Scholar
Altshuler, L. L., Post, R. M., Leverich, G. S., Mikalauskas, K., Rosoff, A. & Ackerman, L. (1995). Antidepressant-induced mania and cycle acceleration: a controversy revisited. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 1130–8.Google Scholar
Altshuler, L. L., Cohen, L., Szuba, M. P., Burt, V. K., Gitlin, M. & Mintz, J. (1996). Pharmacologic management of psychiatric illness during pregnancy: dilemmas and guidelines. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 592–606.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association Committee on Electroconvulsive Therapy (2001). The Practice of Electroconvulsive Therapy: Recommendations for Treatment, Training, and Privileging, 2nd edn. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Andersen, K., Balldin, J., Gottfries, C. G.et al. (1987). A double-blind evaluation of electroconvulsive therapy in Parkinson's disease with “on-off” phenomena. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 76, 191–9.Google Scholar
Arnold, O. H. & Stepan, H. (1952). Untersuchungen zur Frage der akuten todlichen, Katatonie. Wiener Zeitschrift fur Nervenheilkunde und Deren Grenzgebiete, 4, 235–58.Google Scholar
Avery, D. & Lubrano, A. (1979). Depression treated with imipramine and ECT: the DeCarolis study reconsidered. American Journal of Psychiatry, 136, 559–62.Google Scholar
Avery, D. & Winokur, G. (1978). Suicide, attempted suicide, and relapse rates in depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 35, 749–53.Google Scholar
Aziz, M., Maixner, D. F., DeQuardo, J., Aldridge, A. & Tandon, R. (2001). ECT and mental retardation: a review and case reports. Journal of ECT, 17, 149–52.Google Scholar
Babington, R. G. & Wedeking, P. W. (1975). Blockade of tardive seizures in rats by electroconvulsive shock. Brain Research, 88, 141–4.Google Scholar
Bagadia, V. N., Abhyankar, R. R., Doshi, J., Pradhan, P. V. & Shah, L. P. (1983). A double blind controlled study of ECT vs chlorpromazine in schizophrenia. Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 31, 637–40.Google Scholar
Baldessarini, R. J. (2001). Drugs and the treatment of psychiatric disorders: antidepressant and antianxiety agents. In Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 10th edn, ed. Hardman, J. G., Gilman, L. E. & Gilman, A. G., pp. 447–83. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Baldessarini, R. J. & Tondo, L. (2003). Suicide risk and treatments for patients with bipolar disorder. Journal of the American Medical Association, 290, 1517–19.Google Scholar
Balldin, J., Granerus, A. K., Lindstedt, G., Modigh, K. & Walinder, J. (1981). Predictors for improvement after electroconvulsive therapy in parkinsonian patients with on-off symptoms. Journal of Neural Transmission, 52, 199–211.Google Scholar
Barker, A. T., Jalinous, R. & Freeston, I. L. (1985). Non-invasive magnetic stimulation of human motor cortex. Lancet, 1, 1106–7.Google Scholar
Bates, W. J. & Smeltzer, D. J. (1982). Electroconvulsive treatment of psychotic self-injurious behavior in a patient with severe mental retardation. American Journal of Psychiatry, 139, 1355–6.Google Scholar
Bebchuck, J. M., Barnhill, J. & Dawkins, K. (1996). ECT and mental retardation. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 1231.Google Scholar
Benatov, R., Sirota, P. & Megged, S. (1996). Neuroleptic-resistant schizophrenia treated with clozapine and ECT. Convulsive Therapy, 12, 117–21.Google Scholar
Benbow, S. M. (1988). ECT for depression in dementia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 859.Google Scholar
Bergman, J. D. & Harris, J. C. (1998). Mental retardation. In Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, ed. Kaplan, S. & Sadock, B., p. 2224. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.
Berrouschot, J., Rolle, K., Kuhn, H. J. & Schneider, D. (1997). Serum neuron-specific enolase levels do not increase after electroconvulsive therapy. Journal of Neurological Science, 150, 173–6.Google Scholar
Bhatia, S. C., Bhatia, S. K. & Gupta, S. (1998). Concurrent administration of clozapine and ECT: a successful therapeutic strategy for a patient with treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Journal of ECT, 14, 280–3.Google Scholar
Bhatia, S. C., Baldwin, S. A. & Bhatia, S. K. (1999). Electroconvulsive therapy during the third trimester of pregnancy. Journal of ECT, 15, 270–4.Google Scholar
Birkenhager, T. K., Pluijms, E. M. & Lucius, S. A. (2003). ECT response in delusional versus non-delusional depressed inpatients. Journal of Affective Disorders, 74, 191–5.Google Scholar
Black, D. W., Winokur, G. & Nasrallah, A. (1989). Illness duration and acute response in major depression. Convulsive Therapy, 5, 338–43.Google Scholar
Boodman, S. G. (1996). Shock therapy … it's back. The Washington Post, p. 24.
Bostwick, J. M. & Pankratz, V. S. (2000). Affective disorders and suicide risk: a reexamination. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1925–32.Google Scholar
Bourgon, L. N. & Kellner, C. H. (2000). Relapse of depression after ECT: a review. Journal of ECT, 16, 19–31.Google Scholar
Bourne, H. (1954). Convulsion dependence. Lancet, 2, 1193–6.Google Scholar
Bradvik, L. & Berglund, M. (2000). Treatment and suicide in severe depression: a case-control study of antidepressant therapy at last contact before suicide. Journal of ECT, 16, 399–408.Google Scholar
Brandon, S. P., Cowley, C., McDonald, P., Neville, R., Palmer, R. & Wellstood-Eason, S. (1984). Electroconvulsive therapy: results in depressive illness from the Leicestershire trial. British Medical Journal, 288, 22–5.Google Scholar
Brandon, S., Cowley, P., McDonald, C., Neville, P., Palmer, R. & Wellstood-Eason, S. (1985). Leicester ECT trial: Results in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 177–83.Google Scholar
Breggin, P. R. (1991). Toxic Psychiatry: Why Therapy, Empathy, and Love Must Replace the Drugs, Electroshock, and Biochemical Theories of the “New Psychiatry”. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Brill, N. O., Crumpton, E., Eiduson, S., Crayson, H. M., Hellman, L. I. & Richards, R. A. (1959). Relative effectiveness of various components of electroconvulsive therapy. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 81, 627–35.Google Scholar
Buchan, H., Johnstone, E., McPherson, K., Palmer, R. L., Crow, T. J. & Brandon, S. (1992). Who benefits from electroconvulsive therapy? Combined results of the Leicester and Northwick Park trials. British Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 355–9.Google Scholar
Burd, L., Fisher, W., Vesely, B. N., Williams, M., Kerbeshian, J. & Leech, C. (1991). Prevalence of psychoactive drug use among North Dakota group home residents. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 96, 119–26.Google Scholar
Burke, W. J., Rubin, E. H., Zorumski, C. F. & Wetzel, R. D. (1987). The safety of ECT in geriatric psychiatry. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 35, 516–21.Google Scholar
Burt, T., Lisanby, S. H. & Sackeim, H. (2002). Neuropsychiatric applications of transcranial magnetic stimulation: a meta-analysis. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 5, 73–103.Google Scholar
Calev, A., Ben-Tzvi, E., Shapira, B., Drexler, H., Carasso, R. & Lerer, B. (1989). Distinct memory impairments following electroconvulsive therapy and imipramine. Psychology Medicine, 19, 111–19.Google Scholar
Calev, A., Kochavlev, E., Tubi, N.et al. (1991a). Change in attitude toward electroconvulsive therapy: effects of treatment, time since treatment, and severity of depression. Convulsive Therapy, 7, 184–9.Google Scholar
Calev, A., Nigal, D., Shapira, B.et al. (1991b). Early and long-term effects of electroconvulsive therapy and depression on memory and other cognitive functions. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders, 179, 526–33.Google Scholar
Caplan, G. (1945). Treatment of epilepsy by electrically induced convulsions. A preliminary report. British Medical Journal, 1, 511–12.Google Scholar
Caplan, G. (1946). Electrical convulsion therapy in treatment of epilepsy. Journal of Mental Science, 784–93.Google Scholar
Carlyle, W., Killick, L. & Ancill, R. (1991). ECT: an effective treatment in the screaming demented patient. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 39, 637.Google Scholar
Cardwell, B. A. & Nakai, B. (1995). Seizure activity in combined clozapine and ECT: a retrospective view. Convulsive Therapy, 11, 110–13.Google Scholar
Cattan, R. A., Barry, P. P., Mead, G., Reefe, W. E., Gay, A. & Silverman, M. (1990). Electroconvulsive therapy in octogenarians. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 38, 753–8.Google Scholar
Chan, C. H., Janicak, P. G., Davis, J. M., Altman, E., Andriukaitis, S. & Hedeker, D. (1987). Response of psychotic and nonpsychotic depressed patients to tricyclic antidepressants. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 48, 197–200.Google Scholar
Chanpattana, W., Chakrabhand, M. L., Sackeim, H. A.et al. (1999). Continuation ECT in treatment-resistant schizophrenia: a controlled study. Journal of ECT, 15, 178–92.Google Scholar
Chanpattana, W. & Chakrabhand, M. L. (2001). Combined ECT and neuroleptic therapy in treatment-refractory schizophrenia: prediction of outcome. Psychiatry Research, 105, 107–15.Google Scholar
Chanpattana, W. & Kramer, B. A. (2003). Acute and maintenance ECT with flupentixol in refractory schizophrenia: sustained improvements in psychopathology, quality of life, and social outcomes. Schizophrenia Research, 63, 189–93.Google Scholar
Chanpattana, W. (1999). Maintenance ECT in mentally retarded, treatment-resistant schizophrenic patients. Journal of ECT, 5, 150–3.Google Scholar
Chanpattana, W. (2000). Maintenance ECT in treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand, 83, 657–62.Google Scholar
Chen, P., Ganguli, M., Mulsant, B. H. & DeKosky, S. T. (1999). The temporal relationship between depressive symptoms and dementia: a community-based prospective study. Archives in General Psychiatry, 56, 261–6.Google Scholar
Clarke, T. B., Coffey, C. E., Hoffman, G. W. & Weiner, R. D. (1989). Continuation therapy for depression using outpatient electroconvulsive therapy. Convulsive Therapy, 5, 330–7.Google Scholar
Coffey, C. E., Weiner, R. D., Djang, W. T.et al. (1991). Brain anatomic effects of ECT: a prospective magnetic resonance imaging study. Archives in General Psychiatry, 48, 1013–21.Google Scholar
Cohen, D., Paillere-Martinot, M. L. & Basquin, M. (1997). Use of electroconvulsive therapy in adolescents. Convulsive Therapy, 13, 25–31.Google Scholar
Coleman, E. A., Sackeim, H. A., Prudic, J., Devanand, D. P., McElhiney, M. C. & Moody, B. J. (1996). Subjective memory complaints before and after electroconvulsive therapy. Biological Psychiatry, 39, 346–56.Google Scholar
Conca, A., Koppi, S., Konig, P., Swoboda, E. & Krecke, N. (1996). Transcranial magnetic stimulation: a novel antidepressive strategy?Neuropsychobiology, 34, 204–7.Google Scholar
Conwell, Y., Duberstein, P. R. & Caine, E. D. (2002). Risk factors for suicide in later life. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 193–204.Google Scholar
Copper, R. L., Goldenberg, R. L., Das, A.et al. (1996). The preterm prediction study: maternal stress is associated with spontaneous preterm birth at less than thirty-five weeks gestation. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 175, 1286–92.Google Scholar
Coppen, A., Milln, P., Harwood, J. & Wood, K. (1985). Does the dexamethasone suppression test predict antidepressant treatment success?British Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 294–6.Google Scholar
Coryell, W. (1982). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis abnormality and ECT response. Psychiatry Research, 6, 283–91.Google Scholar
Couturier, J. L. (2005). Efficacy of rapid-rate repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 30, 83–90.Google Scholar
Currier, M. B., Murray, G. B. & Welch, C. C. (1992). Electroconvulsive therapy for post-stroke depressed geriatric patients. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 4, 140–4.Google Scholar
Cutjar, P. & Wilson, D. (1999). The use of ECT in intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 43, 421–7.Google Scholar
Davis, J. M., Janicak, P. G., Sakkas, P., Gilmore, C. & Wang, Z. (1991). Electroconvulsive therapy in the treatment of the neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Convulsive Therapy, 7, 111–20.Google Scholar
d'Elia, G. (1970). Unilateral electroconvulsive therapy. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 215 (Suppl.), 1–98.Google Scholar
Dalby, N. O., Tonder, N., Wolby, D. P., West, M., Finsen, B. & Bolwig, T. G. (1996). No loss of hippocampal hilar somatostatinergic neurons after repeated electroconvulsive shock: a combined stereological and in situ hybridization study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 68–74.Google Scholar
Decina, P., Guthrie, E. B., Sackeim, H. A., Kahn, D. & Malitz, S. (1987). Continuation ECT in the management of relapses of major affective episodes. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 75, 559–62.Google Scholar
Devanand, D. P., Fitzsimons, L., Prudic, J. & Sackeim, H. A. (1995). Subjective side effects during electroconvulsive therapy. Convulsive Therapy, 11, 232–40.Google Scholar
Devanand, D. P., Decina, P., Sackeim, H. A., Hopkins, N., Novacenko, H. & Malitz, S. (1987). Serial dexamethasone suppression tests in initial suppressors and non-suppressors treated with electroconvulsive therapy. Biological Psychiatry, 22, 463–72.Google Scholar
Devanand, D. P., Sano, M., Tang, M. X.et al. (1996). Depressed mood and the incidence of Alzheimer's disease in the elderly living in the community. Archives in General Psychiatry, 53, 175–82.Google Scholar
Devanand, D. P., Verma, A. K., Tirumalasetti, F. & Sackeim, H. A. (1991). Absence of cognitive impairment after more than 100 lifetime ECT treatments. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 929–32.Google Scholar
Dinan, T. G. & Barry, S. (1989). A comparison of electroconvulsive therapy with a combined lithium and tricyclic combination among depressed tricyclic nonresponders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 80, 97–100.Google Scholar
Department of Health (1999). Electroconvulsive Therapy: Survey Covering the Period from January 1999 to March 1999. England. Bulletin 1999/22. London: Government Statistical Service.
Dombrovski, A. Y., Mulsant, B. H., Haskett, R. F., Prudic, J., Begley, A. E. & Sackeim, H. A. (2005). Predictors of remission after electroconvulsive therapy in unipolar depression. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66, 1043–9.Google Scholar
Donahue, J. C. (2000). Electroconvulsive therapy and memory loss: anatomy of a debate. Journal of ECT, 16, 133–43.Google Scholar
Douyon, R., Serby, M., Klutchko, B. & Rotrosen, J. (1989). ECT and Parkinson's disease revisited: a “naturalistic” study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 1451–5.Google Scholar
Duncan, A. J., Ungvari, G. S., Russell, R. J. & Seifert, A. (1990). Maintenance ECT in very old age. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 2, 139–44.Google Scholar
Dunn, C. G. & Quinlan, D. (1978). Indicators of ECT response and non-response in the treatment of depression. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 39, 620–2.Google Scholar
Ende, G., Braus, D. F., Walter, S., Walter, S., Weber-Fahr, W. & Henn, F. A. (2000). The hippocampus in patients treated with electroconvulsive therapy: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging study. Archives in General Psychiatry, 57, 937–43.Google Scholar
Endler, N. S. (1988). The origins of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Convulsive Therapy, 4, 5–23.Google Scholar
Ferrill, M. J., Kehoe, W. A. & Jacisin, J. J. (1992). ECT during pregnancy: physiologic and pharmacologic considerations. Convulsive Therapy, 8, 186–200.Google Scholar
Field, T. M. (1998). Depressed Mothers and their Newborns. Paper presented at the 11th Biennial Conference on Infant Studies, Atlanta, GA.
Field, T., Diego, M., Hernandez-Reif, M., Schanberg, S. & Kuhn, C. (2002). Relative right versus left frontal EEG in neonates. Developmental Psychobiology, 41, 147–55.Google Scholar
Figiel, G. S., Epstein, C., McDonald, W. M.et al. (1998). The use of rapid-rate transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in refractory depressed patients. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 10, 20–25.Google Scholar
Fink, M. (1979). Convulsive Therapy: Theory and Practice. New York: Raven Press.
Fink, M. (1984). Meduna and the origins of convulsive therapy. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 1034–41.Google Scholar
Fink, M. (1986). Neuroendocrine predictors of electroconvulsive therapy outcome. Dexamethasone suppression test and prolactin. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 462, 30–6.Google Scholar
Fink, M., Kellner, C. & Sackeim, H. A. (1999). Intractable seizures, status epilepticus, and ECT. Journal of ECT, 15, 282–4.Google Scholar
Fink, M., Bailine, S. & Petrides, G. (2001). Electrode placement and electroconvulsive therapy: a search for the chimera. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 607–9.Google Scholar
Fink, M. & Taylor, M. A. (2003). Catatonia: A Clinician's Guide to Diagnosis and Treatment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fink, M., Taylor, M. A. & Ghaziuddin, N. (2006). Catatonia in autistic spectrum disorders: a medical treatment algorithm. In Catatonia in Autism Spectrum Disorders, ed. Dhossche, D. M., Wing, L., Ohta, M. & Neumarker, K-J., pp. 233–44. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press.
Fischer, P., Simanyi, M. & Danielczyk, W. (1990). Depression in dementia of the Alzheimer type and in multi-infarct dementia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 1484–7.Google Scholar
Folkerts, H. (1996). The ictal electroencephalogram as a marker for the efficacy of electroconvulsive therapy. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 246, 155–64.Google Scholar
Folkerts, H. W., Michael, N., Tolle, R., Schonauer, K., Mucke, S. & Schulze-Monking, H. (1997). Electroconvulsive therapy vs. paroxetine in treatment-resistant depression – a randomized study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 96, 334–42.Google Scholar
Fox, H. A. (2001). Extended continuation and maintenance ECT for long-lasting episodes of major depression. Journal of ECT, 17, 60–4.Google Scholar
Frances, A., Weiner, R. D. & Coffey, C. E. (1989). ECT for an elderly man with psychotic depression and concurrent dementia. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 40, 237–38, 242.Google Scholar
Frankel, F. H. (1973). Electro-convulsive therapy in Massachusetts: a task force report. Massachusetts Journal of Mental Health, 3, 3–29.Google Scholar
Fantz, R. M., Markowitz, J. S. & Kellner, C. H. (1998). Sumatriptan for post-ECT headache. Journal of ECT, 14, 272–4.Google Scholar
Freeman, C. P. (2000). The ECT Handbook. London: Royal College of Psychiatrists.
Freeman, C. P. & Kendell, R. E. (1980). ECT: I. Patients' experiences and attitudes. British Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 8–16.Google Scholar
Freeman, C. P. L., Basson, J. V. & Crichton, A. (1978). Double-blind controlled trial of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and simulated ECT in depressive illness. Lancet, I, 738–40.Google Scholar
Frith, C. D., Stevens, M., Johnstone, E. C., Deakin, J. F., Lawler, P. & Crow, T. J. (1983). Effects of ECT and depression on various aspects of memory. British Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 610–17.Google Scholar
Gagne, G. G. Jr., Furman, M. J., Carpenter, L. L. & Price, L. H. (2000). Efficacy of continuation ECT and antidepressant drugs compared to long-term antidepressants alone in depressed patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1960–5.Google Scholar
Gangadhar, B. N., Kapur, R. L. & Kalyanasundarum, S. (1982). Comparison of electroconvulsive therapy with imipramine in endogenous depression: a double blind study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 367–71.Google Scholar
Geoghegan, J. J. & Stevenson, G. H. (1949). Prophylactic electroshock. American Journal of Psychiatry, 105, 494–5.Google Scholar
George, M. S. & Wassermann, E. M. (1994). Rapid-rate transcranial magnetic stimulation and ECT. Convulsive Therapy, 10, 251–4.Google Scholar
George, M. S., Wassermann, E. M., Kimbrell, T. A.et al. (1997). Mood improvement following daily left prefrontal repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in patients with depression: a placebo-controlled crossover trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1752–6.Google Scholar
Ghaziuddin, N., Kaza, M., Ghazi, N., King, C., Walter, G. & Rey, J. M. (2001). Electroconvulsive therapy for minors: experiences and attitudes of child psychiatrists and psychologists. Journal of ECT, 17, 109–17.Google Scholar
Ghaziuddin, N., King, C. A., Naylor, M. W.et al. (1996). Electroconvulsive treatment in adolescents with pharmacotherapy-refractory depression. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 6, 259–71.Google Scholar
Glover, V. (1999). Maternal stress or anxiety during pregnancy and the development of the baby. Practising Midwife, 2, 20–2.Google Scholar
Glover, V., Teixeira, J., Gitau, R. & Fisk, N. (1998). Links between Antenatal Maternal Anxiety and the Fetus. Paper presented at the 11th Biennial Conference on Infant Studies, Atlanta, GA.
Goldstein, M. Z. & Jensfold, M. F. (1989). ECT treatment of an elderly mentally retarded man. Psychosomatic, 30, 104–6.Google Scholar
Gonzales, M. D. C., Palomar, M. & Rovira, R. (1997). Electroconvulsive therapy for status epilepticus. Annals of Internal Medicine, 127, 247–8.Google Scholar
Gormley, N., Cullen, C.. Walters, L., Philpot, M. & Lawlor, B. (1998). The safety and efficacy of electroconvulsive therapy in patients over age 75. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 13, 871–4.Google Scholar
Grant, J. E. & Mohan, S. N. (2001). Treatment of agitation and aggression in four demented patients using ECT. Journal of ECT, 17, 205–9.Google Scholar
Gregory, S., Shawcross, C. R. & Gill, D. (1985). The Nottingham ECT Study. A double-blind comparison of bilateral, unilateral and simulated ECT in depressive illness. British Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 520–4.Google Scholar
Griesemer, D. A., Kellner, C. H., Beale, M. D. & Smith, G. M. (1997). Electroconvulsive therapy for treatment of intractable seizures. Initial findings in two children. Neurology, 49, 1389–92.Google Scholar
Grunhaus, L., Zelnik, T., Albala, A. A.et al. (1987). Serial dexamethasone suppression tests in depressed patients treated only with electroconvulsive therapy. Journal of Affective Disorders, 13, 233–40.Google Scholar
Grunhaus, L., Pande, A. C. & Haskett, R. F. (1990). Full and abbreviated courses of maintenance electroconvulsive therapy. Convulsive Therapy, 6, 130–8.Google Scholar
Grunhaus, L., Dolberg, O. & Lustig, M. (1995). Relapse and recurrence following a course of ECT: reasons for concern and strategies for further investigation. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 29, 165–72.Google Scholar
Grunhaus, L., Dannon, P. N., Schreiber, S.et al. (2000). Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation is as effective as electroconvulsive therapy in the treatment of non-delusional major depressive disorder: an open study. Biological Psychiatry, 47, 314–24.Google Scholar
Grunhaus, L., Schreiber, S., Dolberg, O. T., Polak, D. & Dannon, P. N. (2003). A randomized controlled comparison of electroconvulsive therapy and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in severe and resistant nonpsychotic major depression. Biological Psychiatry, 53, 324–31.Google Scholar
Guze, B., Weinman, B. & Diamond, R. (1987). Use of ECT to treat bipolar depression in a mentally retarded with cerebral palsy. Convulsive Therapy, 3, 60–4.Google Scholar
Hall, W. D., Mant, A., Mitchell, P. B., Rendle, V. A., Hickie, I. B. & McManus, P. (2003). 1991–2000. Association between antidepressant prescribing and suicide in Australia, trend analysis. British Medical Journal, 326, 1008–11.Google Scholar
Hancock, R. D., Weber, S. L., Kaza, R. & Her, K. S. (1991). Changes in psychotropic drug use in long-term residents of an ICF/MR facility. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 96, 137–41.Google Scholar
Handforth, A. (1982). Postseizure inhibition of kindled seizures by electroconvulsive shock. Experimental Neurology, 78, 483–91.Google Scholar
Hawkins, J. M., Archer, K. J., Strakowski, S. M. & Keck, P. E. (1995). Somatic treatment of catatonia. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 25, 345–69.Google Scholar
Heath, E. S., Adams, A. & Wakeling, P. L. G. (1964). Short courses of ECT and simulated ECT in chronic schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 110, 800–7.Google Scholar
Hedegaard, M., Henriksen, T. B., Secher, N. J., Hatch, M. C. & Sabroe, S. (1996). Do stressful life events affect duration of gestation and risk of preterm delivery?Epidemiology, 7, 339–45.Google Scholar
Heim, C. & Nemeroff, C. B. (2001). The role of childhood trauma in the neurobiology of mood and anxiety disorders: preclinical and clinical studies. Biological Psychiatry, 49, 1023–30.Google Scholar
Hermann, R. C., Ettner, S. L., Dorwart, R. A., Hoover, C. W. & Young, E. (1998). Characteristics of psychiatrists who perform ECT. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 889–94.Google Scholar
Hermann, R. C., Dorwart, R. A., Hoover, C. W. & Brody, J. (1995). Variation in ECT use in the United States. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 869–75.Google Scholar
Hickie, I., Mason, C., Parker, G. & Brodaty, H. (1996). Prediction of ECT response: validation of a refined sign-based (CORE) system for defining melancholia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 68–74.Google Scholar
Holsboer, F. (2001). Stress, hypercortisolism and corticosteroid receptors in depression: implications for therapy. Journal of Affective Disorder, 62, 77–91.Google Scholar
Hoyle, N. R., Pratt, R. T. & Thomas, D. G. (1984). Effects of electroconvulsive therapy on serum myelin basic protein immunoreactivity. British Medical Journal, 288, 1110–11.Google Scholar
Hrdlicka, M., Moran, M., Vachutka, J.et al. (1996). EEG correlates of therapeutic effects of electroconvulsive therapy. Ceska a Slovenska Psychiatrie, 92, 32–40.Google Scholar
Husain, M. M., Meyer, D. E., Muttakin, M. H. & Weiner, M. (1993). Maintenance ECT for treatment of recurrent mania. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 985.Google Scholar
Husain, M. M., Rush, A. J., Fink, M.et al. (2004). Speed of response and remission in major depressive disorder with acute electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): a Consortium for Research in ECT (CORE) report. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65, 485–91.Google Scholar
Isometsa, E. T., Henriksson, M. M., Heikkinen, M. E. & Lonnqvist, J. K. (1996). Completed suicide and recent electroconvulsive therapy in Finland. Convulsive Therapy, 12, 152–5.Google Scholar
Janakiramaiah, N., Gangadhar, B. N., Naga, V.et al. (2000). Antidepressant efficacy of Sudarshan Kriya Yoga (SKY) in melancholia: a randomized comparison with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and imipramine. Journal of Affective Disorders, 57, 255–9.Google Scholar
Janicak, P. G., Dowd, S. M., Martis, B.et al. (2002). Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation versus electroconvulsive therapy for major depression: preliminary results of a randomized trial. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 659–67.Google Scholar
Johnstone, E. C., Deakin, J. F., Lawler, P.et al. (1980). The Northwick Park electroconvulsive therapy trial. Lancet, 2, 1317–20.Google Scholar
Jones, B. P., Henderson, M. & Welch, C. A. (1988). Executive functions in unipolar depression before and after electroconvulsive therapy. International Journal of Neuroscience, 38, 287–97.Google Scholar
Kales, H. C., Dequardo, J. R. & Tandon, R. (1999). Combined electroconvulsive therapy and clozapine in treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 23, 547–56.Google Scholar
Kalinowsky, L. B. & Kennedy, F. (1943). Observations in electric shock therapy applied to problems of epilepsy. Journal of Nervous Mental Disease, 98, 56–67.Google Scholar
Karliner, W. & Wehrheim, H. K. (1965). Maintenance convulsive treatments. American Journal of Psychiatry, 121, 1113–15.Google Scholar
Karvounis, S., Holt, G. & Hodgkiss, A. (1992). Outpatient ECT for depression in a man with moderate learning disability. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 426–7.Google Scholar
Katona, C. L., Aldridge, C. R., Roth, M. & Hyde, J. (1987). The dexamethasone suppression test and prediction of outcome in patients receiving ECT. British Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 315–18.Google Scholar
Kearns, A. (1987). Cotard's syndrome in a mentally retarded man. British Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 112–14.Google Scholar
Kellner, C. H. & Bernstein, H. J. (1993). ECT as a treatment for neurologic illness. In Clinical Science of Electroconvulsive Therapy, ed. Coffey, C. E., pp. 183–210. Washington, DC:American Psychiatric Press.
Kellner, C. H., Husain, M., Petrides, G., Fink, M. & Rummans, T. (2002). Comment on “Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation versus electroconvulsive therapy for major depression: preliminary results of a randomized trial”. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 1032–3.Google Scholar
Kellner, C. H., Fink, M., Knapp, R.et al. (2005). Relief of expressed suicidal intent by ECT: a consortium for research in ECT study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 977–82.Google Scholar
Kennedy, R., Mittal, D. & O'Jile, J. (2003). Electroconvulsive therapy in movement disorders: an update. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 15, 407–21.Google Scholar
Khan, A., Warner, H. A. & Brown, W. A. (2000). Symptom reduction and suicide risk inpatients treated with placebo in antidepressant clinical trials: an analysis of the Food and Drug Administration database. Archives in General Psychiatry, 57, 311–17.Google Scholar
Kho, K. H. (2002). Treatment of rapid cycling bipolar disorder in the acute and maintenance phase with ECT. Journal of ECT, 18, 159–61.Google Scholar
Kindler, S., Shapira, B., Hadjez, J., Abramowitz, M., Brom, D. & Lerer, B. (1991). Factors influencing response to bilateral electroconvulsive therapy in major depression. Convulsive Therapy, 7, 245–54.Google Scholar
Kramer, B. A. (1985). Use of ECT in California, 1977–1983. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 1190–2.Google Scholar
Kramer, B. A. (1999). A naturalistic review of maintenance ECT at a university setting. Journal of ECT, 15, 262–9.Google Scholar
Kramp, P. & Bolwig, T. G. (1981). Electroconvulsive therapy in acute delirious states. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 22, 368–71.Google Scholar
Krystal, A. D. & Coffey, C. E. (1997). Neuropsychiatric considerations in the use of electroconvulsive therapy. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 9, 283–92.Google Scholar
Krystal, A. D., Weiner, R. D. & Coffey, C. E. (1995). The ictal EEG as a marker of adequate stimulus intensity with unilateral ECT. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 7, 295–303.Google Scholar
Kutcher, S. & Robertson, H. A. (1995). Electroconvulsive therapy in treatment resistant bipolar youth. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 5, 167–75.Google Scholar
Kukopulos, A., Reginaldi, D., Tondo, L., Bernabei, A. & Caliari, B. (1977). Spontaneous length of depression and response to ECT. Psychological Medicine, 7, 625–9.Google Scholar
Kupchik, M., Spivak, B., Mester, R.et al. (2000). Combined electroconvulsive-clozapine therapy. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 23, 14–16.Google Scholar
Kurki, T., Hiilesmaa, V., Raitasalo, R., Mattila, H. & Ylikorkala, O. (2000). Depression and anxiety in early pregnancy and risk for preeclampsia. Obstetric Gynecology, 95, 487–90.Google Scholar
Lambourn, J. & Gill, D. (1978). A controlled comparison of simulated and real ECT. British Journal of Psychiatry, 133, 514–19.Google Scholar
Lauter, H. & Sauer, H. (1987). Electroconvulsive therapy: a German perspective. Convulsive Therapy, 3, 204–9.Google Scholar
Lazarus, A., Jaffe, R. & Dubin, W. (1990). Electroconvulsive therapy and major depression in Down's syndrome. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 51, 422–5.Google Scholar
Legendre, S. A., Stern, R. A., Solomon, D. A., Furman, M. J. & Smith, K. E. (2003). The influence of cognitive reserve on memory following electroconvulsive therapy. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 15, 333–9.Google Scholar
Leung, M., Hollander, Y. & Brown, G. R. (2004). Pretreatment with ibuprofen to prevent electroconvulsive therapy-induced headache. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 64, 551–3.Google Scholar
Liang, R. A., Lam, R. W. & Ancill, R. J. (1988). ECT in the treatment of mixed depression and dementia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 281–4.Google Scholar
Lindefors, N., Brodin, E. & Metsis, M. (1995). Spatiotemporal selective effects on brain-derived neurotrophic factor and trkB messenger RNa in rat hippocampus by electroconvulsive shock. Neuroscience, 65, 661–70.Google Scholar
Lipman, R. S., Backup, C., Bobrin, Y.et al. (1986). Dexamethasone suppression test as a predictor of response to electroconvulsive therapy. I. Inpatient treatment. Convulsive Therapy, 2, 151–60.Google Scholar
Lisanby, S. H., Bazil, C. E., Resor, S. R., Nobler, M. S., Finck, D. A. & Sackeim, H. A. (2001). ECT in the treatment of status epilepticus. Journal of ECT, 17, 210–15.Google Scholar
Lisanby, S. H., Maddox, J. H., Prudic, J., Devanand, D. P. & Sackeim, H. A. (2000). The effects of electroconvulsive therapy on memory of autobiographical and public events. Archives in General Psychiatry, 57, 581–90.Google Scholar
Loo, H., Galinowski, A., Carvalho, W., Bourdel, M. C. & Poirier, M. F. (1991). Use of maintenance ECT for elderly depressed patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 810.Google Scholar
Lopez, J. F., Chalmers, D. T., Little, K. Y., Watson, S. J. & Bennett, A. E. (1998). Regulation of serotonin1 A, glucocorticoid, and mineralocorticoid receptor in rat and human hippocampus: implications for the neurobiology of depression. Biological Psychiatry, 43, 547–73.Google Scholar
Magni, G., Fisman, M. & Helmes, E. (1988). Clinical correlates of ECT-resistant depression in the elderly. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 49, 405–7.Google Scholar
Mander, A. J., Whitfield, A., Kean, D., Smith, M. A., Douglas, R. H. & Kendell, R. E. (1987). Cerebral and brain stem changes after ECT revealed by nuclear magnetic resonance imaging. British Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 69–71.Google Scholar
Manly, D. T., Oakley, S. P. Jr & Bloch, R. M. (2000). Electroconvulsive therapy in old-old patients. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 8, 232–6.Google Scholar
Mann, S. C., Caroff, S. N., Bleier, H. R., Welz, W. K., Kling, M. A. & Hayashida, M. (1986). Lethal catatonia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 1374–81.Google Scholar
Mann, S. C., Caroff, S. N., Bleier, H. R., Antelo, R. E. & Un, H. (1990). Electroconvulsive therapy of the lethal catatonia syndrome. Convulsive Therapy, 6, 239–47.Google Scholar
Mann, S. C., Caroff, S. N., Fricchione, G. L. & Greenstein, R. A. (2004). Malignant catatonia. In Catatonia: from Psychopathology to Neurobiology, ed. Caroff, S. N., Mann, S. C., Francais, A. & Fricchione, G. L., pp. 105–19. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.
Markowitz, J. S., Kellner, C. H., DeVane, C. L.et al. (2001). Intranasal sumatriptan in post-ECT headache: results of an open-label trial. Journal of ECT, 17, 280–3.Google Scholar
Martin, J. L., Barbanoj, M. J., Schlaepfer, T. E.et al. (2003). Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for the treatment of depression. Systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 182, 480–91.Google Scholar
Mattes, J. A., Pettinati, H. M., Stephens, S., Robin, S. E. & Willis, K. W. (1990). A placebo-controlled evaluation of vasopressin for ECT-induced memory impairment. Biological Psychiatry, 27, 289–303.Google Scholar
McCall, W. V., Reboussin, D. M., Weiner, R. D. & Sackeim, H. A. (2000). Titrated moderately suprathreshold vs fixed high-dose right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy: acute antidepressant and cognitive effects. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 438–44.Google Scholar
McDonald, I. M., Perkins, G., Marjerrison, G. & Podilsky, M. (1966). A controlled comparison of amitriptyline and electroconvulsive therapy in the treatment of depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 122, 1427–31.Google Scholar
McDonald, W. M. & Thompson, T. R. (2001). Treatment of mania in dementia with electroconvulsive therapy. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 35, 72–82.Google Scholar
McElhiney, M. C., Moody, B. J., Steif, B. L., Prudic, J., Devanand, D. P. & Nobler, M. S. (1995). Autobiographical memory and mood effects of electroconvulsive therapy. Neuropsychology, 9, 501–17.Google Scholar
Meldrum, B. S. (1986). Neuropathological consequences of chemically and electrically induced seizures. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 462, 186–93.Google Scholar
Merrill, R. D. (1990). ECT for a patient with profound mental retardation. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 256–7.Google Scholar
Miller, D. H., Clancy, J. & Cummings, F. (1953). A comparison between unidirectional current nonconvulsive electrical stimulation, alternating current electroshock and pentothal in chronic schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 109, 617–20.Google Scholar
Miller, L. J. (1994). Use of electroconvulsive therapy during pregnancy. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 45, 444–50.Google Scholar
Moise, F. N. & Petrides, G. (1996). Case study: electroconvulsive therapy in adolescents.[see comment]. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 312–18.Google Scholar
Moreno, E. M., Martin, M. J., Sanchez, V. J. & Vazquez, G. T. (1998). Electroconvulsive therapy in the first trimester of pregnancy. Journal of ECT, 14, 251–4.Google Scholar
Monroe, R. R. Jr (1991). Maintenance electroconvulsive therapy. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 14, 947–60.Google Scholar
Mukherjee, S., Sackeim, H. A. & Lee, C. (1988). Unilateral ECT in the treatment of manic episodes. Convulsive Therapy, 4, 74–80.Google Scholar
Mukherjee, S., Sackeim, H. A. & Schnur, D. B. (1994). Electroconvulsive therapy of acute manic episodes: a review of 50 years' experience. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 169–76.Google Scholar
Mulsant, B. H., Haskett, R. F., Prudic, J.et al. (1997). Low use of neuroleptic drugs in the treatment of psychotic major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 559–61.Google Scholar
Murray, G. B., Shea, V. & Conn, D. K. (1986). Electroconvulsive therapy for poststroke depression. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 47, 258–60.Google Scholar
Nibuya, M., Morinobu, S. & Duman, R. S. (1995). Regulation of BDNF and trkB mRNS in rat brain by chronic electroconvulsive seizure and antidepressant drug treatments. Journal of Neuroscience, 15, 7539–47.Google Scholar
Nobler, M. S., Sackeim, H. A., Solomou, M., Luber, B., Devanand, D. P. & Prudic, J. (1993). EEG manifestations during ECT: effects of electrode placement and stimulus intensity. Biological Psychiatry, 34, 321–30.Google Scholar
Nobler, M. S., Luber, B., Moeller, J. R.et al. (2000). Quantitative EEG during seizures induced by electroconvulsive therapy: relations to treatment modality and clinical features. I. Global analyses. Journal of ECT, 16, 211–28.Google Scholar
O'Connell, B. K., Towfighi, J., Kofke, W. A. & Hawkins, R. A. (1988). Neuronal loss in mercaptopropionic acid-induced status epilepticus. Acta Neuropathologica, 77, 47–54.Google Scholar
O'Connor, M. K., Knapp, R., Husain, M.et al. (2001). The influence of age on the response of major depression to electroconvulsive therapy: a C.O.R.E. Report. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 9, 382–90.Google Scholar
O'Connor, T. G., Heron, J., Golding, J., Beveridge, M. & Glover, V. (2002). Maternal antenatal anxiety and children's behavioural/emotional problems at 4 years. Report from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and children. British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 502–8.Google Scholar
Oms, A., Miro, E. & Rojo, J. E. (1998). Sumatriptan was effective in electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) headache. Anesthesiology, 89, 1291–2.Google Scholar
Pagnin, D., Queiroz, V., Pini, S. & Cassano, G. B. (2004). Efficacy of ECT in depression: a meta-analytic review. Journal of ECT, 20, 13–20.Google Scholar
Pande, A. C., Grunhaus, L. J., Aisen, A. M. & Haskett, R. F. (1990). A preliminary magnetic resonance imaging study of ECT-treated depressed patients. Biological Psychiatry, 27, 91–3.Google Scholar
Parker, G., Hadzi-Pavlovic, D., Brodaty, H., Boyce, P., Mitchell, P., Wilhelm, K. & Hickie, I. (1992). Predicting the course of melancholic and nonmelancholic depression. A naturalistic comparison study. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180, 693–702.Google Scholar
Pascual-Leone, A., Rubio, B., Pallardo, F. & Catala, M. D. (1996). Rapid-rate transcranial magnetic stimulation of left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in drug-resistant depression. Lancet, 348, 233–7.Google Scholar
Perera, T. D., Luber, B., Nobler, M. S., Prudic, J., Anderson, C. & Sackeim, H. A. (2004). Seizure expression during electroconvulsive therapy: relationships with clinical outcome and cognitive side effects. Neuropsychopharmacology, 29, 813–25.Google Scholar
Petrides, G., Dhossche, D., Fink, M. & Francis, A. (1994). Continuation ECT: relapse prevention in affective disorders. Convulsive Therapy, 10, 189–94.Google Scholar
Petrides, G., Fink, M., Husain, M. M.et al. (2001). ECT remission rates in psychotic versus nonpsychotic depressed patients: a report from CORE. Journal of ECT, 17, 244–53.Google Scholar
Petrides, G., Malur, C. & Fink, M. (2004). Convulsive therapy. In Catatonia: from Psychopathology to Neurobiology, ed. Caroff, S. N., Mann, S. C. & Fricchione, G. L., pp. 151–60. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.
Philbrick, K. L. & Rummans, T. A. (1994). Malignant catatonia. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 6, 1–13.Google Scholar
Poindexter, A. R. (1989). Psychotropic drug patterns in a large ICF/MR facility: a ten-year experience. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 93, 624–6.Google Scholar
Post, R. M., Weiss, S. R. B. & Pert, A. (1988). Cocaine-induced behavioral sensitizations and kindling: implications for emergence of psychopathology and seizures. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 537, 292–308.Google Scholar
Post, R. M., Putnam, F., Contel, N. R. & Goldman, B. (1984). Electroconvulsive seizures inhibit amygdala kindling: implications for mechanisms of action in affective illness. Epilepsia, 25, 234–9.Google Scholar
Pridmore, S., Bruno, R., Turnier-Shea, Y., Red, P. & Rybak, M. (2000). Comparison of unlimited numbers of rapid transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and ECT treatment sessions in major depressive episode. International Journal of Neuropharmacology, 3, 129–34.Google Scholar
Prudic, J. & Sackeim, H. A. (1999). Electroconvulsive therapy and suicide risk. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60 (Suppl. 2), 104–10.Google Scholar
Prudic, J., Sackeim, H. A. & Devanand, D. P. (1990). Medication resistance and clinical response to electroconvulsive therapy. Psychiatry Research, 31, 287–96.Google Scholar
Prudic, J., Haskett, R. F., Mulsant, B.et al. (1996). Resistance to antidepressant medications and short-term clinical response to ECT. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 985–92.Google Scholar
Prudic, J., Olfson, M., Marcus, S. C., Fuller, R. B. & Sackeim, H. A. (2004). Effectiveness of electroconvulsive therapy in community settings. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 301–12.Google Scholar
Puri, B. K., Langa, A., Coleman, R. M. & Singh, I. (1992). The clinical efficacy of maintenance electroconvulsive therapy in a patient with a mild mental handicap. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 707–9.Google Scholar
Rami-Gonzales, L., Salamero, M., Boget, T., Catalan, R., Ferrer, J. & Bernardo, (2003). Pattern of cognitive dysfunction in depressive patients during maintenance electroconvulsive therapy. Psychiatry in Medicine, 33, 345–50.Google Scholar
Rasmussen, K. G. Jr, Russell, J. C., Kung, S., Rummans, T. A., Rae-Stuart, E. & O'Connor, M. K. (2003). Electroconvulsive therapy for patients with major depression and probable Lewy body dementia. Journal of ECT, 19, 103–9.Google Scholar
Regenold, W. T., Weintraub, D. & Taller, A. (1998). Electroconvulsive therapy for epilepsy and major depression. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 6, 180–3.Google Scholar
Reisner, A. D. (2003). The electroconvulsive therapy controversy: evidence and ethics. Neuropsychological Review, 13, 199–219.Google Scholar
Rey, J. M. & Walter, G. (1997). Half a century of ECT use in young people. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 595–602.Google Scholar
Rifkin, A. (1988). ECT versus tricyclic antidepressants in depression: a review of the evidence. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 49, 3–7.Google Scholar
Roberts, J. K. A. (1986). Neuropsychiatric complications of mental retardation. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 9, 647–57.Google Scholar
Robinson, R. G., Bolduc, P. L. & Price, T. R. (1987). Two-year longitudinal study of poststroke mood disorders: diagnosis and outcome at one and two years. Stroke, 18, 837–943.Google Scholar
Roccaforte, W. H., Wengel, S. P. & Burke, W. J. (2000). ECT for screaming in dementia. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 8, 177.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, J. & Pettinati, H. M. (1984). Differential memory complaints after bilateral and unilateral ECT. Amerian Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 1071–4.Google Scholar
Rossi, A., Stratta, P., Nistico, R., Sabatini, M. D., Di Michele, V. & Casacchia, M. (1990). Visuospatial impairment in depression: a controlled ECT study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 81, 245–9.Google Scholar
Roy, A. & Draper, R. (1995). Suicide among psychiatric hospital in-patients. Psychological Medicine, 25, 199–202.Google Scholar
Roy, C. R. & Overdyk, F. J. (1997). The adult patient. In Patient Safety in Anesthetic Practice, ed. Morell, R. C. & Eichorn, J. H.. St. Louis, MI: Churchill Livingstone.
Sackeim, H. A. (1986). Acute cognitive side effects of ECT. Psychopharmacological Bulletin, 22, 482–548.Google Scholar
Sackeim, H. A. (1992). The cognitive effects of electroconvulsive therapy. In Cognitive Disorders: Pathophysiology and Treatment, ed. Moos, W. H., Gamzu, E. R. & Thal, L. J.. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Sackheim, H. A. (1999). The anticonvulsant hypothesis of the mechanisms of action of ECT: current status. Journal of ECT, 15, 5–26.Google Scholar
Sackeim, H. A., Decina, P., Prohovnik, I., Malitz, S. & Resor, S. R. (1983). Anticonvulsant and antidepressant properties of electroconvulsive therapy: a proposed mechanism of action. Biological Psychiatry, 18, 1301–10.Google Scholar
Sackeim, H. A., Portnoy, S., Neeley, P., Steif, B. L., Decina, P. & Malitz, S. (1987). Cognitive consequences of low-dose electroconvulsive therapy. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 462, 326–40.Google Scholar
Sackeim, H. A., Decina, P., Kanzler, M., Kerr, B. & Malitz, S. (1987). Effects of electrode placement on the efficacy of titrated, low-dose ECT. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1449–55.Google Scholar
Sackeim, H. A., Freeman, J., McElhiney, M. C., Coleman, E., Prudic, J. & Devanand, D. P. (1992). Effects of major depression on estimates of intelligence. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 14, 268–88.Google Scholar
Sackeim, H. A., Prudic, J., Devanand, D. P.et al. (1993). Effects of stimulus intensity and electrode placement on the efficacy and cognitive effects of electroconvulsive therapy. New England Journal of Medicine, 328, 839–46.Google Scholar
Sackeim, H. A., Prudic, J., Devanand, D. P. (2000). A prospective, randomized, double-blind comparison of bilateral and right unilateral ECT at different stimulus intensities. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 425–34.Google Scholar
Sackeim, H. A., Haskett, R. F., Mulsant, B. H.et al. (2001). Continuation pharmacotherapy in the prevention of relapse following electroconvulsive therapy: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285, 1299–307.Google Scholar
Sapolsky, R. M. (2000). Glucocorticoids and hippocampal atrophy in neuropsychiatric disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 925–35.Google Scholar
Shiwach, R. S., Reid, W. H. & Carmody, T. J. (2001). An analysis of reported deaths following electroconvulsive therapy in Texas, 1993–1998. Psychiatric Services, 52, 1095–7.Google Scholar
Schneekloth, T. D., Rummans, T. A. & Logan, K. M. (1993). Electroconvulsive therapy in adolescents. Convulsive Therapy, 9, 158–66.Google Scholar
Schnur, D. B., Mukherjee, S., Silver, J., Degreef, G. & Lee, C. (1989). Electroconvulsive therapy in the treatment of episodic aggressive dyscontrol in psychotic patients. Convulsive Therapy, 5, 353–61.Google Scholar
Schwarz, T., Loewenstein, J. & Isenberg, K. E. (1995). Maintenance ECT: indications and outcome. Convulsive Therapy, 11, 14–23.Google Scholar
Scott, A. I. & Turnbull, L. W. (1990). Do repeated courses of ECT cause brain damage detectable by MRI?American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 371–2.Google Scholar
Scott, B. W., Wojtowicz, J. M. & Burnham, W. M. (2000). Neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the rat following electroconvulsive shock seizures. Experimental Neurology, 165, 231–6.Google Scholar
Serra, M., Pisul, M. G., Dazzi, L., Purdy, R. H. & Biggio, G. (2002). Prevention of the stress-induced increase in the concentration of neuroactive steroids in rat brain by long-term administration of mirtazapine but not of fluoxetine. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 16, 133–8.Google Scholar
Sharma, V. (1999). Retrospective controlled study of inpatient ECT; does it prevent suicide?Journal of Affective Disorders, 56, 183–7.Google Scholar
Sharma, V. (2001). The effect of electroconvulsive therapy on suicide risk in patients with mood disorders. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 46, 704–9.Google Scholar
Shulman, R. B. (2003). Maintenance ECT in the treatment of PD. Therapy improves psychotic symptoms, physical function. Geriatrics, 58, 43–5.Google Scholar
Sikdar, S., Kulhara, P., Avasthi, A. & Singh, H. (1994). Combined chlorpromazine and electroconvulsive therapy in mania. British Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 806–10.Google Scholar
Small, J. G., Klapper, M. H., Kellams, J. J.et al. (1988). Electroconvulsive treatment compared with lithium in the management of manic states. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 727–32.Google Scholar
Smith, M. A., Zhang, L. X., Lyons, W. E. & Mamounas, L. A. (1997). Anterograde transport of endogenous brain-derived neurotrophic factor in hippocampal mossy fibers. NeuroReport, 8, 1829–34.Google Scholar
Sobin, C., Sackeim, H. A., Prudic, J., Devanand, D. P., Moody, B. J. & McElhiney, M. C. (1995). Predictors of retrograde amnesia following ECT. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 995–1001.Google Scholar
Squire, L. R., Cohen, N. & Zouzounis, J. (1984). Preserved amnesia and bilateral electroconvulsive therapy. Long-term follow-up. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 89–95.Google Scholar
Squire, L. R. & Slater, P. C. (1983). Electroconvulsive therapy and complaints of memory dysfunction: a prospective three-year follow-up study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 1–8.Google Scholar
Strober, M., Rao, U., DeAntonio, M.et al. (1998). Effects of electroconvulsive therapy in adolescents with severe endogenous depression resistant to pharmacotherapy. Biological Psychiatry, 43, 335–8.Google Scholar
Suppes, T., Webb, A., Carmody, T.et al. (1996). Is postictal electrical silence a predictor of response to electroconvulsive therapy?Journal of Affective Disorders, 41, 55–8.Google Scholar
Suzuki, K., Awata, S. & Matsuoka, H. (2003). Short-term effect of ECT in middle-aged and elderly patients with intractable catatonic schizophrenia. Journal of ECT, 19, 73–80.Google Scholar
Swartz, C. M. (1989). Safety and ECT stimulus electrodes: I. Heat liberation at the electrode skin interface. Convulsive Therapy, 5, 171–5.Google Scholar
Swartz, C. M. (1994). Asymmetric bilateral right frontotemporal left frontal stimulus electrode placement for electroconvulsive therapy. Neuropsychobiology, 29, 174–8.Google Scholar
Takaoka, K. & Takata, T. (2003). Catatonia in childhood and adolescence. Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 57, 129–37.Google Scholar
Tang, W. K. & Ungvari, G. S. (2003). Efficacy of electroconvulsive therapy in treatment-resistant schizophrenia: a prospective open trial. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 27, 373–9.Google Scholar
Tanney, B. L. (1986). Electroconvulsive therapy and suicide. Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior, 16, 116–40.Google Scholar
Taylor, M. A. (1982). Indications for electroconvulsive therapy. In Electroconvulsive Therapy: Biological Foundations and Clinical Applications, ed. Abrams, R. & Essman, W. B., pp. 7–40. New York: Spectrum Publications.
Taylor, M. A. (2001). Use of suprathreshold electroconvulsive therapy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 607.Google Scholar
Taylor, M. A. & Abrams, R. (1985). Short-term cognitive effects of unilateral and bilateral ECT. British Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 308–11.Google Scholar
Taylor, M. A. & Fink, M. (2006). Melancholia: The Diagnosis, Pathophysiology, and Treatment of Depressive Illness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Taylor, P. J. & Fleminger, J. J. (1980). ECT for schizophrenia. Lancet, I, 380–82.Google Scholar
Tew, J. D. Jr, Mulsant, B. H., Haskett, R. F.et al. (1999). Acute efficacy of ECT in the treatment of major depression in the old-old. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1865–70.Google Scholar
Thienhaus, O. J., Margletta, S. & Bennett, J. A. (1990). A study of the clinical efficacy of maintenance ECT. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 51, 141–4.Google Scholar
Thompson, J. W., Weiner, R. D. & Myers, C. P. (1994). Use of ECT in the United States in 1975, 1980, and 1986. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 1657–61.Google Scholar
Thornton, J. E., Mulsant, B. H., Dealy, R. & Reynolds, C. F. (1990). Retrospective study of maintenance electroconvulsive therapy in a university-based psychiatry practice. Convulsive Therapy, 6, 121–9.Google Scholar
Thuppal, M. & Fink, M. (1999). Electroconvulsive therapy and mental retardation. Journal of ECT, 15, 140–9.Google Scholar
Tomac, T. A., Rummans, T. A., Pileggi, T. S. & Li, H. (1997). Safety and efficacy of electroconvulsive therapy in patients over age 85. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 5, 126–30.Google Scholar
Tondo, L., Baldessarini, R. J., Hennen, J., Floris, G., Silvetti, F. & Tohen, M. (1998). Lithium treatment and risk of suicidal behavior in bipolar disorder patients. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 59, 405–14.Google Scholar
Trollor, J. N. & Sachdev, P. S. (1999). Electroconvulsive treatment of neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a review and report of cases. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 33, 650–9.Google Scholar
Tsao, C. I., Jain, S., Gibson, R. H., Guedet, P. J. & Lehrmann, J. A. (2004). Maintenance ECT for recurrent medication-refractory mania. Journal of ECT, 20, 118–19.Google Scholar
Tsuang, M. T., Dempsey, G. M. & Fleming, J. A. (1979). Can ECT prevent premature death and suicide in ‘schizoaffective’ patients?Journal of Affective Disorders, 1, 167–71.Google Scholar
UK ECT Review Group & Geddes, J. (2003). Efficacy and safety of electroconvulsive therapy in depressive disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet, 361, 799–808.Google Scholar
Ukpong, D. I., Makanjuola, R. O. & Morakinyo, O. (2002). A controlled trial of modified electroconvulsive therapy in schizophrenia in a Nigerian teaching hospital. West African Journal of Medicine, 21, 237–40.Google Scholar
Vaidya, N. A., Maableshwarkar, A. R. & Shahid, R. (2003). Continuation and maintenance ECT in treatment-resistant bipolar disorder. Journal of ECT, 19, 10–16.Google Scholar
Vaidya, V. A., Terwilliger, R. Z. & Duman, R. S. (2000). Alterations in heavy and light neurofilament proteins in hippocampus following chronic ECS administration, Synapse, 35, 137–43.Google Scholar
Wurff, F. B., Stek, M. L., Hoogendijk, W. J. G. & Beekman, A. T. F. (2003). The efficacy and safety of ECT in depressed older adults, a literature review. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18, 894–904.Google Scholar
Vanelle, J. M., Loo, H., Galinowski, A.et al. (1994). Maintenance ECT in intractable manic-depressive disorders. Convulsive Therapy, 10, 195–205.Google Scholar
Viparelli, U. & Viparelli, G. (1992). ECT and grand-mal epilepsy. Convulsive Therapy, 8, 39–42.Google Scholar
Vothknecht, S., Kho, K. H., Schaick, H. W., Zwinderman, A. H., Middelkoop, H. & Blansjaar, B. A. (2003). Effects of maintenance electroconvulsant therapy on cognitive functions. Journal of ECT, 19, 151–7.Google Scholar
Walker, R. & Swartz, C. M. (1994). Electroconvulsive therapy during high-risk pregnancy. General Hospital Psychiatry, 16, 348–53.Google Scholar
Walter, G., Rey, J. M. & Starling, J. (1997). Experience, knowledge and attitudes of child psychiatrists regarding electroconvulsive therapy in the young. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 31, 676–81.Google Scholar
Walter, G., Rey, J. M. & Mitchell, P. B. (1999). Practitioner review: electroconvulsive therapy in adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 40, 325–34.Google Scholar
Weiner, R. D. (1984), Does electroconvulsive therapy cause brain damage?Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 7, 1–53.Google Scholar
Weiner, S. J., Ward, T. N. & Ravaris, C. L. (1994). Headache and electroconvulsive therapy. Headache, 34, 155–9.Google Scholar
Weintraub, D. & Lippmann, S. B. (2000). Electroconvulsive therapy in the acute poststroke period. Journal of ECT, 16, 415–18.Google Scholar
Weintraub, D. & Lippmann, S. B. (2001). ECT for major depression and mania with advanced dementia. Journal of ECT, 17, 65–7.Google Scholar
Wengel, S. P., Burke, W. J., Pfeiffer, R. F., Roccaforte, W. H. & Paige, S. R. (1998). Maintenance electroconvulsive therapy for intractable Parkinson's disease. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 6, 263–9.Google Scholar
West, E. D. (1981). Electroconvulsive therapy in depression: a double blind controlled trial. British Medical Journal, 282, 355–7.Google Scholar
Zachrisson, O. C., Balldin, J., Ekman, R.et al. (2000). No evident neuronal damage after electroconvulsive therapy. Psychiatry Research, 96, 157–65.Google Scholar
Zuckerman, B., Bauchner, H., Parker, S. & Cabral, H. (1990). Maternal depressive symptoms during pregnancy, and newborn irritability. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 11, 190–4.Google Scholar
Zyss, T., Gorka, Z., Kowalska, M. & Vetulani, J. (1997). Preliminary comparison of behavioral and biochemical effects of chronic transcranial magnetic stimulation and electroconvulsive shock in the rat. Biological Psychiatry, 42, 920–4.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×