Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-4rdpn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T06:17:52.683Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 17 - Culture, Mental Health and Mental Illnesses

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 April 2024

By
Dinesh Bhugra ,
Max Pemberton ,
Sam Gnanapragasam  and
Daniel Poulter
Edited by
David Kingdon ,
Paul Rowlands  and
George Stein
David Kingdon
Affiliation:
University of Southampton
Paul Rowlands
Affiliation:
Derbyshire Healthcare NHS foundation Trust
George Stein
Affiliation:
Emeritus of the Princess Royal University Hospital
Get access

Summary

Cultures are an integral part of a person’s life, and they influence an individual’s social and cognitive development. They can contribute to the onset, perpetuation and outcomes of many psychiatric illnesses. These have a major role in defining abnormal behaviours and deviance, but cultures can also heavily influence pathways to care by influencing explanatory models and resources. In addition, culture moulds an individual’s worldview. Cultures are incipient, with institutions of education, employment and training having their own microcultures. Individuals learn to navigate these multiple cultural and micro-identities in order to achieve their aims. The relationship between the culture and prevalence of various psychiatric disorders is complex. In recent times, for political and economic reasons, attitudes towards economic migrants as well as refugees and asylum seekers appear to have become more negative in high-income countries. Hence, it is important to recognise that cultures have relativist characteristics rather than universalist, though some features may be common in designing, developing and delivering services. The role of culture in mental illness is described in this chapter.

Keywords

culturepsychiatric disorderspathways to carecognitive developmentsocial development
Type
Chapter
Information
Seminars in General Adult Psychiatry , pp. 699 - 725
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2024

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Tylor, EB. Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art and Custom. London: J. Murray; 1871.Google Scholar
US Department of Health and Human Services. Mental Health: Culture, Race, and Ethnicity. Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Mental Health Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Mental Health; 2001.Google Scholar
US Department of Health and Human Services. Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services, US Public Health Service; 1999.Google Scholar
Geertz, C. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books; 1973.Google Scholar
Kleinman, A. How is culture important for DSM-IV? In: Mezzich, JE, Kleinman, A, Fabrega, H Jr, et al. (eds.) Culture and Psychiatric Diagnosis: A DSM-IV Perspective. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1996: 15–25.Google Scholar
Haviland, WA. Cultural Anthropology. Chicago: Holt, Rinehart and Winston; 1990.Google Scholar
Kirmayer, LJ. Cultural psychiatry in historical perspective. In: Bhugra, D, Bhui, K (eds.) Textbook of Cultural Psychiatry. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2018: 1–17.Google Scholar
Kuper, A. Culture: The Anthropologists’ Account. Harvard, MA: Harvard University Press; 2000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boas, F. Race, Language, and Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1982.Google Scholar
Kroeber, AL, Kluckhohn, C. Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. Papers. Peabody Museum of Archaeology & Ethnology. Harvard, MA: Harvard University; 1952.Google Scholar
Linton, R. The Cultural Background of Personality. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts; 1945.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. National cultures and corporate cultures. In: Samovar, LA, Porter, RE (eds.) Communication Between Cultures. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth 1984;51: 51.Google Scholar
APA. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5™, 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.; 2013.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations. London: Sage Publications; 2001.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. London: Sage Publications; 1980.Google Scholar
Matsuura, K. Universal declaration on cultural diversity. Diogenes 2005;52(1):141–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eshun, S, Gurung, A. Introduction to culture and psychopathology. In: Gurung, RA, Eshun, S (eds.) Culture and Mental Health: Sociocultural Influences, Theory, and Practice. New Jersey: Wiley and Sons 2009: 1–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Landrine, H, Klonoff, EA. The schedule of racist events: a measure of racial discrimination and a study of its negative physical and mental health consequences. Journal of Black Psychology 1996;22(2):144–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Odegaard, O. Emigration and insanity: a study of mental disease in Norwegian born population in Minnesota. Acta Psychiatrica et Neurologica Scandinavica 1932;4(Suppl):1–206.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. Schizophrenia: An International Follow-up Study. Chichester: Wiley; 1979.Google Scholar
Jablensky, A, Sartorius, N, Ernberg, G, et al. Schizophrenia: manifestations, incidence and course in different cultures. A World Health Organization Ten-Country Study. Psychological Medicine Monograph Supplement 1992;20:1–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
von Bertalanffy, L. General Systems Theory: Foundations, Developments, Applications, revised ed. New York, NY: George Braziller, Inc; 1968.Google Scholar
Boulding, KE. General systems theory – the skeleton of science. Management Science 1956;2(3):197–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofstede, GH, Hofstede, G, Arrindell, WA, et al. Masculinity and Femininity: The Taboo Dimension of National Cultures. London: Sage; 1998.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. Geert Hofstede: culture’s consequences (abridged edition) 1984, Beverly Hills, London and New Delhi: Sage. 325 pages. Organization Studies 1984;5(4):96.Google Scholar
Pelto, PJ. The differences between ‘tight’ and ‘loose’ societies. Trans-action 1968;5(5):37–40.Google Scholar
Harrington, JR, Gelfand, MJ. Tightness–looseness across the 50 united states. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2014;111(22):7990–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gelfand, MJ, Raver, JL, Nishii, L, et al. Differences between tight and loose cultures: a 33-nation study. Science 2011;332(6033):1100–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gelfand, MJ, Jackson, JC, Pan, X, et al. The relationship between cultural tightness–looseness and COVID-19 cases and deaths: a global analysis. The Lancet Planetary Health 2021;5(3):e135–e44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, R. When Cultures Collide: Leading Across Cultures: London: John Murray Press; 2018.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G, Pedersen, P, Hofstede, G. Exploring Culture: Exercises, Stories and Synthetic Cultures. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press; 2002.Google Scholar
Hsu, FL. Kinship and ways of life: an exploration. In: Hsu, FL (ed.) Psychological Anthropology. Cambridge: Schenkman; 1972: 509–72.Google Scholar
Birren, JE, Renner, VJ. Research on the psychology of aging: principles and experimentation. In: Birren, JE, Schaie, KW (eds.) Handbook of the Psychology of Aging 1977: 1.Google Scholar
Bengtson, VL, Kasschau, PL, Ragan, PK. The impact of social structure on aging individuals. In: Birren, JE, Schaie, KW (eds.) Handbook of the Psychology of Aging 1977: 327–53.Google Scholar
Jackson, JJ. Aged Negroes: their cultural departures from statistical stereotypes and rural-urban differences. The Gerontologist 1970;10(2):140–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Opoku, KA. African perspectives on death and dying. In: Berger, A, Badham, P, Kutscher, H, et al. (eds.) Perspectives on Death and Dying. Philadelphia: The Charles Press Publishers; 1989: 14–23.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, P. The forms of capital. In: Richardson, JG (ed.) Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. Westport, CT: Greenwood; 1986: 241–58.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, P, Nice, R. The production of belief: contribution to an economy of symbolic goods. Media, Culture & Society 1980;2(3):261–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bhugra, D, Watson, C, Ventriglio, A. Migration, cultural capital and acculturation. International Review of Psychiatry 2021;33(1–2):126–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bhugra, D. Culture and Self-harm: Attempted Suicide in South Asians in London. London: Psychology Press; 2004.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. Lexicon of Cross-cultural Terms in Mental Health. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1997.Google Scholar
Bethencourt, F. Racisms: From the Crusades to the Twentieth Century. Princeton: Princeton University Press; 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sowell, T. Race and culture: a world view. National Interest 1994;38:97–100.Google Scholar
Thompson, CE, Carter, RT. Racial Identity Theory: Applications to Individual, Group, and Organizational Interventions. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers; 1997.Google Scholar
Omi, M, Winant, H. Racial Formation in the United States. From the Sixties to the Nineties. New York: Routledge, 1986.Google Scholar
Carter, RT. The Influence of Race and Racial Identity in Psychotherapy: Toward a Racially Inclusive Model. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons; 1995.Google Scholar
Sternberg, RJ, Grigorenko, EL, Kidd, KK. Intelligence, Race, and Genetics. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2005.Google ScholarPubMed
Spickard, PR. The illogic of American racial categories. In: Root, MPP (ed.) Racially Mixed People in America. Newbury Park, CA: Sage; 1992: 12–23.Google Scholar
Thomas, A, Sillen, S. Racism and Psychiatry. Toronto: Ontario Citadel Press; 1972.Google Scholar
Hays, PA. Addressing Cultural Complexities in Practice. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2008.Google Scholar
Smedley, A, Smedley, BD. Race as biology is fiction, racism as a social problem is real: anthropological and historical perspectives on the social construction of race. American Psychologist 2005;60(1):16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helms, JE. Black and White Racial Identity: Theory, Research, and Practice. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press; 1990.Google Scholar
Cohen, P. Its racism what dunnit: hidden narratives in theories of racism. In: Donald, J, Rattansi, A (eds.) Race, Culture and Difference. London: Sage; 1992: 62–100.Google Scholar
Rattansi, A. Changing the subject? Racism, culture and education. Race, Culture and Difference 1992;1:11–48.Google Scholar
Hoebel, EA. Religion and myth: symbolic ideology. In: Hoebel, EA (ed.) Anthropology: The Study of Man, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1972: 571.Google Scholar
American Anthropological Association. AAA statement on race. American Anthropologist 1998;100(3):712–13.Google Scholar
Tseng, W-S. Clinician’s Guide to Cultural Psychiatry. Cambridge, MA: Academic Press; 2003.Google Scholar
Pinderhughes, EB. Teaching empathy: ethnicity, race and power at the cross-cultural treatment interface. American Journal of Social Psychiatry 1984;4(1):5–12.Google Scholar
Thomas, CS, Comer, JP. Racism and mental health services. In: Willie, C, Kramer, B, Brown, B (eds.) Racism and Mental Health. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh; 1973: 165–84.Google Scholar
Allport, GW, Clark, K, Pettigrew, T. The Nature of Prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley; 1954.Google Scholar
Kerner, C. The Kerner Report: National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders Report. Princeton: Princeton University Press; 1969.Google Scholar
Pettigrew, TF. Racism and the mental health of white Americans: a social psychological view. In: Willie, C, Kramer, B, Brown, B (eds.) Racism and Mental Health. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh; 1973: 269–98.Google Scholar
Frederickson, G. M. 2002–Racism: A Short History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Bhugra, D, Ayonrinde, O, Butler, G, et al. A randomised controlled trial of assertive outreach vs. treatment as usual for black people with severe mental illness. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences 2011;20(1):83–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harré, R. Social Being: A Theory for Social Psychology. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield; 1980.Google Scholar
Guala, F. Understanding Institutions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; 2016.Google Scholar
Bhui, K, Bhugra, D. Racism in psychiatry: paradigm lost – paradigm regained. International Review of Psychiatry 1999;11(2–3):236–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bhugra, D, Ayonrinde, O. Racism, racial life events and mental ill health. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment 2001;7(5):343–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Littlewood, R, Lipsedge, M. Psychiatric illness among British Afro-Caribbeans. BMJ: British Medical Journal 1988;297(6641):135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perera, R, Owens, D, Johnstone, E. Disabilities and circumstances of schizophrenic patients – a follow-up study. Ethnic aspects. A Comparison of three matched groups. The British Journal of Psychiatry. Supplement 1991(13):40–2, 44.Google Scholar
Jackson, JS, Brown, TN, Williams, DR, et al. Racism and the physical and mental health status of African Americans: a thirteen year national panel study. Ethnicity & Disease 1996;6(1–2):132–47.Google ScholarPubMed
Cochrane, R. Race, prejudice and ethnic identity. In: Bhugra, D, Cochrane, R (eds.) Psychiatry in Multicultural Britain. London: Gaskell; 2001: 75–90.Google Scholar
McGoldrick, M, Giordano, J, Garcia-Preto, N. Ethnicity and Family Therapy. New York: Guilford Press; 2005.Google Scholar
Phinney, JS. When we talk about American ethnic groups, what do we mean? American Psychologist 1996;51(9):918.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Vos, G. Ethnic pluralism: conflict and accommodation. In: DeVos, G, Romanucci-Ross, L (eds.) Ethnic Identity: Cultural Continuities and Change. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company; 1975: 5–41.Google Scholar
Sam, DL, Berry, JW. The Cambridge Handbook of Acculturation Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Redfield, R, Linton, R, Herskovits, MJ. Memorandum for the study of acculturation. American Anthropologist 1936;38(1):149–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berry, JW. Acculturation as varieties of adaptation. In: Padilla, AM (ed.) Acculturation: Theory, Models and Some New Findings. Boulder, CO: Westview Press; 1980: 25.Google Scholar
Phinney, JS, Baldelomar, OA. Identity development in multiple cultural contexts. In: Jensen, LA (ed.) Bridging Cultural and Developmental Approaches to Psychology: New Syntheses in Theory, Research, and Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2011: 161–86.Google Scholar
Graves, TD. Psychological acculturation in a tri-ethnic community. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 1967;23(4):337–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camilleri, C, Malewska-Peyre, H. Socialization and identity strategies. Handbook of Cross-cultural Psychology 1997;2:41–67.Google Scholar
Bhugra, RM, Julian Leff, Dinesh. Schizophrenia and African-Caribbeans: a conceptual model of aetiology. International Review of Psychiatry 1999;11(2–3):145–52.Google Scholar
Berry, JW. Acculturation and adaptation in a new society. International Migration 1992;30(s1):69–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dressler, WW. Culture and the Individual: Theory and Method of Cultural Consonance. Abingdon: Routledge; 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dressler, WW. Culture and the risk of disease. British Medical Bulletin 2004;69(1):21–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dressler, WW, Balieiro, MC, Dos Santos, JE. Finding culture change in the second factor: stability and change in cultural consensus and residual agreement. Field Methods 2015;27(1):22–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dressler, WW, Balieiro, MC, Dos Santos, JE. The cultural construction of social support in Brazil: associations with health outcomes. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 1997;21(3):303–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dressler, WW, Balieiro, MC, Santos, JEd. Culture and psychological distress. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto) 2002;12:5–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dressler, WW, Balieiro, MC, Santos, JED. Culture, socioeconomic status, and physical and mental health in Brazil. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 1998;12(4):424–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dressler, WW, Oths, KS. Cultural determinants of health behavior. Handbook of Health Behavior Research I: Personal and Social Determinants 1997;1:359–78.Google Scholar
Dressler, WW, Balieiro, MC, de Araújo, LF, et al. Culture as a mediator of gene-environment interaction: cultural consonance, childhood adversity, a 2A serotonin receptor polymorphism, and depression in urban Brazil. Social Science & Medicine 2016;161:109–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, L. Disease and illness distinctions between professional and popular ideas of sickness. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 1977;1(1):9–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tseng, W-S, Streltzer, J. Culture and Psychotherapy: A Guide to Clinical Practice. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Pub; 2008.Google Scholar
Tseng, W-S. Handbook of Cultural Psychiatry. Cambridge, MA: Academic Press; 2001.Google Scholar
Kleinman, A. Patients and Healers in the Context of Culture. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; 1980.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, M, Somma, D. Explanatory models in psychiatry. In: Bhugra, D, Bhui, K (eds.) Textbook of Cultural Psychiatry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2007: 127–40.Google Scholar
Sam, DL, Moreira, V. Revisiting the mutual embeddedness of culture and mental illness. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture 2012;10(2):2307-0919.1078.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castillo, RJ. Culture & Mental Illness: A Client-centered Approach. Pacific Grove, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole Publishing Co; 1997.Google Scholar
Kiev, A. Transcultural Psychiatry. New York: Free Press; 1972.Google Scholar
Mistry, H, Bhugra, D, Chaleby, K, et al. Veiled communication: is uncovering necessary for psychiatric assessment? Transcultural Psychiatry 2009;46(4):642–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tseng, W-S, Streltzer, J. Culture and Psychopathology: A Guide to Clinical Assessment. New York: Brunner/Mazel; 1997.Google Scholar
Lin, K-M, Kleinman, AM. Psychopathology and clinical course of schizophrenia: a cross-cultural perspective. Schizophrenia Bulletin 1988;14(4):55–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis-Fernández, R, Aggarwal, NK, Bäärnhielm, S, et al. Culture and psychiatric evaluation: operationalizing cultural formulation for DSM-5. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes 2014;77(2):130–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caraballo, A, Lee, J, Lim, R. Applying the DSM-5 outline for cultural formulation and the cultural formulation interview. In: Lim, RF (ed.) Clinical Manual of Cultural Psychiatry. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2015: 43–76.Google Scholar
Andersen, RM, Mullner, RM, Cornelius, LJ. Black-white differences in health status: methods or substance? Milbank Quarterly 1987;65(Suppl 1):72–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacCarthy, B, Craissati, J. Ethnic differences in response to adversity. A community sample of Bangladeshis and their indigenous neighbours. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 1989;24(4):196–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, PC. Medical systems in Malaysia: cultural bases and differential use. Social Science & Medicine 1975;9(3):171–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Good, BJ, Good, M-JD. Toward a meaning-centered analysis of popular illness categories: ‘fright illness’ and ‘heart distress’ in Iran. In: Marsella, AJ, White, G (eds.) Cultural Conceptions of Mental Health and Therapy. New York: Springer; 1982: 141–66.Google Scholar
Kerckhoff, AC, Back, KW. Sociometric patterns in hysterical contagion. Sociometry 1965;28(1):2–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baloh, RW, Bartholomew, RE. Havana Syndrome: Mass Psychogenic Illness and the Real Story Behind the Embassy Mystery and Hysteria. New York: Springer Nature; 2020.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bhugra, D. Psychiatry in ancient Indian texts: a review. History of Psychiatry 1992;3(10):167–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yap, PM. Classification of the culture-bound reactive syndromes. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 1967;1(4):172–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jilek, WG, Jilek-Aall, L. Culture-specific mental disorders. In: Henn, F, Sartorius, N, Helmchen, H, et al. (eds.) Contemporary Psychiatry. New York: Springer; 2001: 965–93.Google Scholar
Gaw, A. Concise Guide to Cross-cultural Psychiatry. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 2001.Google Scholar
Littlewood, R, Lipsedge, M. Culture-bound syndromes. In: Granville-Grossman, K (ed.) Recent Advances in Clinical Psychiatry. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1985: 105–42.Google Scholar
Ritenbaugh, C. Obesity as a culture-bound syndrome. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 1982;6(4):347–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Winzeler, RL. Latah in South-East Asia: The History and Ethnography of a Culture-Bound Syndrome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1995.Google Scholar
Ventriglio, A, Ayonrinde, O, Bhugra, D. Relevance of culture‐bound syndromes in the 21st century. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 2016;70(1):3–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sumathipala, A, Siribaddana, SH, Bhugra, D. Culture-bound syndromes: the story of dhat syndrome. The British Journal of Psychiatry 2004;184(3):200–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tseng, W-S, McDermott, JF. Culture, Mind, and Therapy: An Introduction to Cultural Psychiatry. New York: Brunner/Mazel; 1981.Google Scholar
Bhugra, D, Bhui, K. Textbook of Cultural Psychiatry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bullough, VL. Sexual Variance in Society and History. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons; 1976.Google Scholar
Berlin, EA, Fowkes, WC Jr. A teaching framework for cross-cultural health care – application in family practice. Western Journal of Medicine 1983;139(6):934.Google ScholarPubMed
Rust, G, Kondwani, K, Martinez, R, et al. A crash-course in cultural competence. Ethnicity & Disease 2006;16(2 Suppl 3):S3–29.Google ScholarPubMed
Henderson, D, Vincenzi, B. Ethnopsychopharmacology. In: Lim, RF (ed.) Clinical Manual of Cultural Psychiatry, 2nd ed. Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2015: 495–530.Google Scholar
Wolberg, LR. The Technique of Psychotherapy. New York: Grune & Stratton; 1954.Google Scholar
Castillo, RJ. Lessons from folk healing practices. In: Tseng, WS, Streltzer, J (eds.) Culture and Psychotherapy: A Guide to Clinical Practice Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Pub; 2001: 81–101.Google Scholar
Frank, JD. The faith that heals. The Johns Hopkins Medical Journal 1975;137(3):127–31.Google ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×