Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-t5tsf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T07:28:08.365Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 1 - A Case of a Rapidly Aging Society and Its Dementia Population

from Part I - Approaches to Society within the Brain

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 September 2023

By
Jeanyung Chey
Edited by
Jeanyung Chey
Jeanyung Chey
Affiliation:
Seoul National University
Get access

Summary

South Korea is experiencing the fastest aging of its population in world history, and its dementia population has grown swiftly in the past three decades. This chapter proposes the country’s significance as a case of interest for understanding global population aging and the associated increasing dementia population. A brief history of South Korea, transforming from an agricultural society to a major industrialized nation in less than half a century, demonstrates how major societal changes accompanying industrial development and modernization in a relatively short period have shaped the population aging of a country and its older adults’ risks for dementia. Studies of cognitive aging among elderly Koreans have found greater effects of education on cognitive performance compared to their counterparts in developed countries. As the role of formal education in cognitive development and its moderating effects on neurodegeneration have been found consistently, lack of education has significant consequences on the prevalence of dementia in elderly Koreans, especially women. This has important implications for global aging and dementia epidemiology, as the current increase in the global dementia population is most concentrated in developing countries.

Keywords

economic developmentcompressed modernizationurbanizationeducationbrain injurysocial isolationsocial investment familydeveloping countriesKorean Economic Development Plan (KEDP)
Type
Chapter
Information
Society within the Brain
How Social Networks Interact with Our Brain, Behavior and Health as We Age
 , pp. 11 - 49
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alavanja, M. C., Hoppin, J. A., & Kamel, F. (2004). Health effects of chronic pesticide exposure: Cancer and neurotoxicity. Annu. Rev. Public Health, 25, 155–197.Google Scholar
Ashby-Mitchell, K., Burns, R., Shaw, J., & Anstey, K. J. (2017). Proportion of dementia in Australia explained by common modifiable risk factors. Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy, 9(1), 1–8.Google Scholar
Boyle, P. A., Wilson, R. S., Aggarwal, N. T., Tang, Y., & Bennett, D. A. (2006). Mild cognitive impairment: Risk of Alzheimer disease and rate of cognitive decline. Neurology, 67(3), 441–445.Google Scholar
Canadian Study of Health and Aging Working Group. (1994). Canadian Study of Health and Aging: Study methods and prevalence of dementia. Can. Med. Assoc. J., 150(6), 899–913.Google Scholar
Cao, Q., Tan, C. C., Xu, W., Hu, H., Cao, X. P., Dong, Q., Tan, L., & Yu, J. T. (2020). The prevalence of dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 73(3), 1157–1166.Google Scholar
Chang, K. S. (1995). Gender and abortive capitalist social transformation: Semi-proletarianization of South Korean women. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 36(1), 61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, K. S. (1999). Compressed modernity and its discontents: South Korean society in transition, Economy and Society, 28(1), 30–55.Google Scholar
Chang, K. S. (2010). South Korea under Compressed Modernity: Familial Political Economy in Transition. Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, K. S. (2018). The End of Tomorrow: Familial Liberalism and the Crisis of Reproduction. Jipmudang.Google Scholar
Chang, Y. S., Kim, N. Y., Lee, S. Y., & Chin, D. R. (2010). Trends and Projections on Korean Population. Korea Institute for Health and Social Affairs (KIHASA).Google Scholar
Chapko, D., McCormack, R., Black, C., Staff, R., & Murray, A. (2018). Life-course determinants of cognitive reserve (CR) in cognitive aging and dementia – a systematic literature review. Aging & Mental Health, 22(8), 921–932.Google Scholar
Chey, J. (1998). Korean-Dementia Rating Scale. Hakjisa.Google Scholar
Chey, J., Kim, M. J., Stern, Y., Shin, M., Byun, H., & Habeck, C. (2016). Neural substrates of reserve observed in a non-demented aging population. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease & Parkinsonism, 6(7), 294.Google Scholar
Chey, J., Kim, S. Y., Cho, B., & Park, M. (2002). Normative study of the Computerized Dementia Screening Test (CDST). Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology 21(2), 445–460.Google Scholar
Chey, J., Lee, D., Kwak, S., & Lee, J. (2022). Validation study of the Korean version of Harmonized Cognitive Assessment Protocol (K-HCAP). Paper presented at the INS 2022 Meeting in Barcelona Spain.Google Scholar
Chey, J. Lee, S., Park, S., & Park, E. (1998, February). Development of the Norms for the Korean-Dementia Rating Scale [presentation]. International Neuropsychological Society (INS) Meeting, Honolulu, HawaiiGoogle Scholar
Chey, J., Na, D. G., Tae, W. S., Ryoo, J. W., & Hong, S. B. (2006). Medial temporal lobe volume of nondemented elderly individuals with poor cognitive functions. Neurobiology of Aging, 27(9), 1269–1279.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chey, J., Na, D. R., Park, S., Park, E., & Lee, S. (1999). Effects of education in dementia assessment: Evidence from standardizing the Korean-Dementia Rating Scale. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 13(3), 293–302.Google Scholar
Chey, J., & Park, H. (2011). Neuropsychology in Korea. In Fuji, D. (ed.), The Neuropsychology of Asian Americans, pp. 247–267. Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Chey, J. Y., & Lee, S. A. (1997). Development of the norms for the Korean-Dementia Rating Scale. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 16, 423–433.Google Scholar
Chiu, H. F. K., Lam, L. C. W., Chi, I., Leung, T., Li, S. W., Law, W. T., Chung, D. W., Fung, H. H., Kan, P. S., Lum, C. M., Ng, J., & Lau, J. (1998). Prevalence of dementia in Chinese elderly in Hong Kong. Neurology, 50(4), 1002–1009.Google Scholar
Cho, B., Yang, J., Kim, S., Yang, D. W., Park, M., & Chey, J. (2002). The validity and reliability of a Computerized Dementia Screening Test developed in Korea. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 203, 109–114.Google Scholar
Convit, A., De Leon, M. J., Tarshish, C., De Santi, S., Tsui, W., Rusinek, H., & George, A. (1997). Specific hippocampal volume reductions in individuals at risk for Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiology of Aging, 18(2), 131–138.Google Scholar
Cummings, J. L., & Benson, D. F. (1992). Dementia: A Clinical Approach. Butterworth-Heinemann Medical.Google Scholar
Ferini-Strambi, L., Marcone, A., Garancini, P., Danelon, F., Zamboni, M., Massussi, P., Tedesi, B., & Smirne, S. (1997). Dementing disorders in north Italy: Prevalence study in Vescovato, Cremona Province. European Journal of Epidemiology, 13(2), 201–204.Google Scholar
Ferri, C. P., Prince, M., Brayne, C., Brodaty, H., Fratiglioni, L., Ganguli, M., Hall, K., Hasegawa, K., Hendrie, H., Huang, Y., Jorm, A., Mathers, C., Menezes, P. R., Rimmer, E., & Scazufca, M. (2005). Alzheimer’s Disease International. Global prevalence of dementia: A Delphi consensus study. Lancet, 366(9503), 2112–2117. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(05)67889-0Google Scholar
Folstein, M. F., Bassett, S. S., Anthony, J. C., Romanoski, A. J., & Nestadt, G. R. (1991). Dementia: Case ascertainment in a community survey. Journal of Gerontology, 46(4), M132–M138.Google Scholar
Fox, N. C., Warrington, E. K., Freeborough, P. A., Hartikainen, P., Kennedy, A. M., Stevens, J. M., & Rossor, M. N. (1996). Presymptomatic hippocampal atrophy in Alzheimer’s disease: A longitudinal MRI study. Brain, 119(6), 2001–2007.Google Scholar
Freedman, M., Leach, L., Kaplan, E., Winocur, G., Shulman, K., & Delis, D. C. (1994). Clock Drawing: A Neuropsychological Analysis. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fuh, J. L., & Wang, S. J. (2008). Dementia in Taiwan: Past, present, and future. Acta Neurol Taiwan, 17(3), 153–161.Google Scholar
Gonçalves-Pereira, M., Cardoso, A., Verdelho, A., da Silva, J. A., De Almeida, M. C., Fernandes, A., Raminhos, C., Ferri, C. P., Prina, A. M., Prince, M., & Xavier, M. (2017). The prevalence of dementia in a Portuguese community sample: A 10/66 Dementia Research Group study. BMC geriatrics, 17(1), 1–11.Google Scholar
Han, G. S., & Sharp, R. (1997). Economic development in South Korea: By-product of military regimes. Policy, Organisation and Society, 14(1), 23–39.Google Scholar
Health Insurance Review & Assessment Service. (2016). Korea’s diseases of most concern http://www.hira.or.kr/bbsDummy.do?brdBltNo=9243&brdScnBltNo=4&pgmid=HIRAA020041000100#noneGoogle Scholar
Higo, M., & Khan, H. T. (2015). Global population aging: Unequal distribution of risks in later life between developed and developing countries. Global Social Policy, 15(2), 146–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hung, D. Z., Yang, H. J., Li, Y. F., Lin, C. L., Chang, S. Y., Sung, F. C., & Tai, S. C. (2015). The long-term effects of organophosphates poisoning as a risk factor of CVDs: A nationwide population-based cohort study. PLoS ONE, 10(9), e0137632.Google Scholar
Jack, C. R., Knopman, D. S., Jagust, W. J., Shaw, L. M., Aisen, P. S., Weiner, M. W., Petersen, R. C., & Trojanowski, J. Q. (2010). Hypothetical model of dynamic biomarkers of the Alzheimer’s pathological cascade. The Lancet Neurology, 9(1), 119–128.Google Scholar
Jang, J. W., Park, J. H., Kim, S., Lee, S. H., Lee, S. H., & Kim, Y. J. (2021). Prevalence and incidence of dementia in South Korea: A nationwide analysis of the National Health Insurance Service senior cohort. Journal of Clinical Neurology, 17(2), 249.Google Scholar
Jeon, J. (2019). Economic efficiency debate on state interventionism: How could Korea in Park Chung Hee regime achieve economic growth despite corruption? Humanities Social Science Research, 20(3), 1–31.Google Scholar
Kaye, J. A., Swihart, T., Howieson, D., Dame, A., Moore, M. M., Karnos, T., Camicioli, R., Ball, M., Oken, B., & Sexton, G. (1997). Volume loss of the hippocampus and temporal lobe in healthy elderly persons destined to develop dementia. Neurology, 48(5), 1297–1304.Google Scholar
Killin, L. O., Starr, J. M., Shiue, I. J., & Russ, T. C. (2016). Environmental risk factors for dementia: A systematic review. BMC Geriatrics, 16(1), 1–28.Google Scholar
Kim, D. H., Na, D. L., Yeon, B. G., Kang, Y., Min, K. B., Lee, S. H., Lee, S. S., Lee, M. R., Pyo, O. J., Park, C. B., Kim, S., & Bae, S. S. (1999). Prevalence of dementia in the elderly of an urban community in Korea. Korean Journal of Preventive Medicine, 32(3), 306–316.Google Scholar
Kim, E. (2001). A Normative Study of the Simple Rey Figure Test. Master’s Thesis, Sungshin Women’s University.Google Scholar
Kim, E. M. (1997). Big Business, Strong State: Collusion and Conflict in South Korean Development, 1960–1990. Suny Press.Google Scholar
Kim, H., & Chey, J. (2010). Effects of education, literacy, and dementia on the Clock Drawing Test performance. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 16(6), 1138–1146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, I. (2016). Land reform in South Korea under the US military occupation, 1945–1948. Journal of Cold War Studies, 18(2), 97–129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, J., Jeong, I., Chun, J. H., & Lee, S. (2003). The prevalence of dementia in a metropolitan city of South Korea. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18(7), 617–622.Google Scholar
Kim, K. W., Park, J. H., Kim, M. H., Kim, M. D., Kim, B. J., Kim, S. K., Kim, J. L., Moon, S.W., Bae, J. N., Woo, J. I., Ryu, S. H., Yoon, J. C., Lee, N. J., Lee, D. Y., Lee, S. B., Lee, J. J., Lee, J. Y., Lee, C. U., Chang, S. M., … & Cho, M. J. (2011). A nationwide survey on the prevalence of dementia and mild cognitive impairment in South Korea. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 23(2), 281–291.Google Scholar
Kim, M., & Park, J. M. (2017). Factors affecting cognitive function according to gender in community-dwelling elderly individuals. Epidemiology and Health, 39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, M. S., & Chey, J. (2016). Clinical neuropsychology in South Korea. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 30(8), 1325–1334.Google Scholar
Kim, M. S., Won, J. W., Suh, M. H., Kang, B. G., & Lim, Y. K. (2003). Socioeconomic Problems of an Aging Society and Policy Responses: Experience of OECD Member Countries. KIHASA.Google Scholar
Kim, Y. J., Han, J. W., So, Y. S., Seo, J. Y., Kim, K. Y., & Kim, K. W. (2014). Prevalence and trends of dementia in Korea: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Korean Medical Science, 29(7), 903–912.Google Scholar
Ko, J. Y. (2007). The South Korean experience in economic development. Making world development work: Scientific alternatives to neoclassical economic theory, 127–141.Google Scholar
Koller, D., & Bynum, J. P. (2015). Dementia in the USA: State variation in prevalence. Journal of Public Health, 37(4), 597–604.Google Scholar
Kontis, V., Bennett, J. E., Mathers, C. D., Li, G., Foreman, K., & Ezzati, M. (2017). Future life expectancy in 35 industrialised countries: Projections with a Bayesian model ensemble. The Lancet, 389(10076), 1323–1335.Google Scholar
Korean Statistical Information Service (KOSIS). (2006). Statistics of Education. [Data set]. https://kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_1IN0504&conn_path=I3Google Scholar
Korean Statistical Information Service (KOSIS). (2021a). Statistics Korea, Population Projections for Korea. [Data set]. https://kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_1BPA002&conn_path=I2Google Scholar
Korean Statistical Information Service (KOSIS). (2021b). Gross Domestic Product. [Data set]. https://kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_2KAA904_OECD&conn_path=I2Google Scholar
Korean Statistical Information Service (KOSIS). (2021c). Statistics of Education. [Data set]. https://kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_1PM1501&conn_path=I3Google Scholar
Korean Statistical Information Service. (2021d). Statistics of Birth Rate. https://kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_1B81A21&checkFlag=NGoogle Scholar
Kosmidis, M. H., Vlachos, G. S., Anastasiou, C. A., Yannakoulia, M., Dardiotis, E., Hadjigeorgiou, G., Sakka, P., Ntanasi, E., & Scarmeas, N. (2018). Dementia prevalence in Greece. Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders, 32(3), 232–239.Google Scholar
Kwak, Y. (2006). Perceived Stress is Associated with Decreased Posterior Cingulate Metabolism and Poor Episodic Memory. Master’s thesis, Seoul National University.Google Scholar
Langa, K. M., Larson, E. B., Crimmins, E. M., Faul, J. D., Levine, D. A., Kabeto, M. U., & Weir, D. R. (2017). A comparison of the prevalence of dementia in the United States in 2000 and 2012. JAMA Internal Medicine, 177(1), 51–58.Google Scholar
Langa, K. M., Ryan, L. H., McCammon, R. J., Jones, R. N., Manly, J. J., Levine, D. A., Sonnega, A., Farron, M., & Weir, D. R. (2020). The health and retirement study harmonized cognitive assessment protocol project: Study design and methods. Neuroepidemiology, 54(1), 64–74.Google Scholar
Lee, D., Kwak, S., Lee, J., & Chey, J. (2020). Validation of Korean-Harmonized Cognitive Assessment Protocol (K-HCAP): A Pilot Study. Poster presentation, 2020 Annual Conference of the Korean Psychological Association (KPA), Korea.Google Scholar
Lee, D. Y., Lee, J. H., Ju, Y. S., Kang Uk Lee, M. D., Kim, K. W., Jhoo, J. H., Yoon, J. C., Ha, J., & Woo, J. I. (2002). The prevalence of dementia in older people in an urban population of Korea: The Seoul study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 50(7), 1233–1239.Google Scholar
Lee, J., Banerjee, J., Khobragade, P. Y., Angrisani, M., & Dey, A. B. (2019). LASI-DAD study: A protocol for a prospective cohort study of late-life cognition and dementia in India. BMJ Open, 9(7), e030300.Google Scholar
Lee, J. C. (2003). Health care reform in South Korea: Success or failure? American Journal of Public Health, 93(1), 48–51.Google Scholar
Lee, S. (2005). Stress and Cognitive Aging. Master’s thesis, Seoul National University.Google Scholar
Lerro, C. C., Koutros, S., Andreotti, G., Friesen, M. C., Alavanja, M. C., Blair, A., Hoppin, J. A., Sandler, D. P., Lubin, J. H., Ma, X., Zhang, Y., & Freeman, L. E. B. (2015). Organophosphate insecticide use and cancer incidence among spouses of pesticide applicators in the Agricultural Health Study. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 72(10), 736–744.Google Scholar
Li, Y., Li, Y., Li, X., Zhang, S., Zhao, J., Zhu, X., & Tian, G. (2017). Head injury as a risk factor for dementia and Alzheimer’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 32 observational studies. PLoS ONE, 12(1), e0169650.Google Scholar
Liu, C. C., Li, C. Y., Sun, Y., & Hu, S. C. (2019). Gender and age differences and the trend in the incidence and prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease in Taiwan: A 7-year national population-based study. Biomed Research International, 2019.Google Scholar
Livingston, G., Huntley, J., Sommerlad, A., Ames, D., Ballard, C., Banerjee, S., Brayne, C., Burns, A., Cohen-Mansfield, J., Cooper, C., Costafreda, S. G., Dias, A., Fox, N., Gitlin, L. N., Howard, R., Kales, H. C., Kivimäki, M., Larson, E. B., Ogunniyi, A., … & Mukadam, N. (2020). Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2020 report of the Lancet Commission. The Lancet, 396(10248), 413–446.Google Scholar
Lobo, A., Saz, P., Marcos, G., Dia, J. L., De-la-Camara, C., Ventura, T., Montañes, J. A., Lobo-Escolar, A., Aznar, S., & ZARADEMP Workgroup. (2007). Prevalence of dementia in a southern European population in two different time periods: The ZARADEMP Project. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 116(4), 299–307.Google Scholar
Matthews, F. E., Arthur, A., Barnes, L. E., Bond, J., Jagger, C., Robinson, L., Brayne, C., & Medical Research Council Cognitive Function and Ageing Collaboration. (2013). A two-decade comparison of prevalence of dementia in individuals aged 65 years and older from three geographical areas of England: Results of the Cognitive Function and Ageing Study I and II. The Lancet, 382(9902), 1405–1412.Google Scholar
Matthews, K. A., Xu, W., Gaglioti, A. H., Holt, J. B., Croft, J. B., Mack, D., & McGuire, L. C. (2019). Racial and ethnic estimates of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias in the United States (2015–2060) in adults aged≥ 65 years. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 15(1), 17–24.Google Scholar
Mattis, S. (1988). Dementia Rating Scale: Professional Manual. Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
McDowell, I., Hill, G., & Lindsay, J (1994) The Canadian study of health and aging: Risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease in Canada. Neurology, 44(11), 2073–2080.Google Scholar
Meng, X., & D’Arcy, C. (2012). Education and dementia in the context of the cognitive reserve hypothesis: A systematic review with meta-analyses and qualitative analyses. PLoS ONE, 7(6), e38268.Google Scholar
Ministry of Education, Republic of China. (2021). Educational System. https://english.moe.gov.tw/cp-126-17722-3fb83–1.htmlGoogle Scholar
Ministry of Health & Welfare, Republic of Korea (2021). Policies: Challenges & Tasks Ahead. http://www.mohw.go.kr/eng/pl/pl0103.jsp?PAR_MENU_ID=1003&MENU_ID=100326Google Scholar
Mintun, M. A., Larossa, G. N., Sheline, Y. I., Dence, C. S., Lee, S. Y., Mach, R. H., Klunk, W. E., Mathis, C. A., DeKosky, S. T., & Morris, J. C. (2006). [11C]PIB in a nondemented population: Potential antecedent marker of Alzheimer disease. Neurology, 67(3), 446–452.Google Scholar
Mitchell, A. J., & Shiri-Feshki, M. (2009). Rate of progression of mild cognitive impairment to dementia–meta-analysis of 41 robust inception cohort studies. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 119(4), 252–265.Google Scholar
Mori, E., Hirono, N., Yamashita, H., Imamura, T., Ikejiri, Y., Ikeda, M., Kitagaki, H., Shimomura, T., & Yoneda, Y. (1997). Premorbid brain size as a determinant of reserve capacity against intellectual decline in Alzheimer’s disease. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(1), 18–24.Google Scholar
Mortimer, J. A., Snowdon, D. A., & Markesbery, W. R. (2003). Head circumference, education and risk of dementia: Findings from the Nun Study. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(5), 671–679.Google Scholar
National Archives of Korea. (2021). Population Policies: Yesterday and Today. https://theme.archives.go.kr/next/populationPolicy/policy1980.doGoogle Scholar
Ninomiya, T., Nakaji, S., Maeda, T., Yamada, M., Mimura, M., Nakashima, K., Mori, T., Takebayashi, M., Ohara, T., Hata, J., Kokubo, Y., Uchida, K., Taki, Y., Kumagai, S., Yonemoto, K., Yoshida, H., Muto, K., Momozawa, Y., Akiyama, M., & Kiyohara, Y. (2020). Study design and baseline characteristics of a population-based prospective cohort study of dementia in Japan: The Japan Prospective Studies Collaboration for Aging and Dementia (JPSC-AD). Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine, 25(1), 1–12.Google Scholar
Norton, S., Matthews, F. E., Barnes, D. E., Yaffe, K., & Brayne, C. (2014). Potential for primary prevention of Alzheimer’s disease: An analysis of population-based data. The Lancet Neurology, 13(8), 788–794.Google Scholar
Nunes, B., Silva, R. D., Cruz, V. T., Roriz, J. M., Pais, J., & Silva, M. C. (2010). Prevalence and pattern of cognitive impairment in rural and urban populations from Northern Portugal. BMC Neurology, 10(1), 1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ogawa, N., & Matsukura, R. (2007). Ageing in Japan: The health and wealth of older persons. United Nations Expert Group Meeting on Social and Economic Implications of Changing Population Age Structure, 31, 199–220.Google Scholar
Ohara, T., Hata, J., Yoshida, D., Mukai, N., Nagata, M., Iwaki, T., Kitazono, T., Kanba, S., Kiyohara, Y., & Ninomiya, T. (2017). Trends in dementia prevalence, incidence, and survival rate in a Japanese community. Neurology, 88(20), 1925–1932.Google Scholar
Okamura, H., Ishii, S., Ishii, T., & Eboshida, A. (2013). Prevalence of dementia in Japan: A systematic review. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 36(1–2), 111–118.Google Scholar
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2021), Lack of social support (indicator). https://doi.org/10.1787/1c4df204-enGoogle Scholar
Park, H., Chey, J., & Kim, S.E. (2014). Basal cortisol level and functional level and asymmetry of the hippocampus. Journal of Psychology: General, 33(4), 815–834.Google Scholar
Park, J., Ko, H. J., Park, Y. N., & Chul-Ho, J. (1994). Dementia among the elderly in a rural Korean community. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 164(6), 796–801.Google Scholar
Park, J. G. (2009). Primary Economic Policy of Administrations in South Korea. Korea Economic Research Institute (KERI).Google Scholar
Park, K. A. (1993). Women and development: The case of South Korea. Comparative Politics, 25(2), 127–145.Google Scholar
Park, S., Kim, E., Kim, H., & Chey, J. (2011). Effects of age and education on the Simple Rey Figure Test in elderly Koreans. Korean J. Psychol. Gen, 30, 99–115.Google Scholar
Patterson, C. (2018). The State of the Art of Dementia Research: New Frontiers. World Alzheimer Report 2018. Alzheimer’s Disease International.Google Scholar
Peiris-John, R. J., Ruberu, D. K., Wickremasinghe, A. R., & van-der-Hoek, W. (2005). Low-level exposure to organophosphate pesticides leads to restrictive lung dysfunction. Respiratory Medicine, 99(10), 1319–1324.Google Scholar
Peters, R., Ee, N., Peters, J., Booth, A., Mudway, I., & Anstey, K. J. (2019). Air pollution and dementia: A systematic review. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 70(s1), S145–S163.Google Scholar
Petersen, R. C., Smith, G. E., Waring, S. C., Ivnik, R. J., Tangalos, E. G., & Kokmen, E. (1999). Mild cognitive impairment: Clinical characterization and outcome. Archives of Neurology, 56(3), 303–308.Google Scholar
Pi, J., Olivé, J. M., Roca, J., & Masana, L. (1996). Prevalence of dementia in a semi-rural population of Catalunya, Spain. Neuroepidemiology, 15(1), 33–41.Google Scholar
Pietschnig, J., Penke, L., Wicherts, J. M., Zeiler, M., & Voracek, M. (2015). Meta-analysis of associations between human brain volume and intelligence differences: How strong are they and what do they mean? Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 57, 411–432.Google Scholar
Plassman, B. L., Havlik, R. J., Steffens, D. C., Helms, M. J., Newman, T. N., Drosdick, D., Phillips, C., Gau, B. A., Welsh-Bohmer, K. A., Burke, J. R., Guralnik, J. M., & Breitner, J. C. S. (2000). Documented head injury in early adulthood and risk of Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias. Neurology, 55(8), 1158–1166.Google Scholar
Prencipe, M., Casini, A. R., Ferretti, C., Lattanzio, M. T., Fiorelli, M., & Culasso, F. (1996). Prevalence of dementia in an elderly rural population: Effects of age, sex, and education. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 60(6), 628–633.Google Scholar
Prina, A. M., Mayston, R., Wu, Y. T., & Prince, M. (2019). A review of the 10/66 dementia research group. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol., 54, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-018-1626-7Google Scholar
Prince, M., Graham, N., Brodaty, H., Rimmer, E., Varghese, M., Chiu, H., Acosta, D., & Scazufca, M. (2004). Alzheimer Disease International’s 10/66 Dementia Research Group – One model for action research in developing countries. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 19(2), 178–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prince, M., Bryce, R., Albanese, E., Wimo, A., Ribeiro, W., & Ferri, C. P. (2013). The global prevalence of dementia: A systematic review and metaanalysis. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 9(1), 63–75.Google Scholar
Public Health Agency of Canada. (2017). Dementia in Canada, including Alzheimer’s disease: Highlights from the Canadian chronic disease surveillance system [Fact sheet]. https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/phac-aspc/documents/services/publications/diseases-conditions/dementia-highlights-canadian-chronic-disease-surveillance/dementia-highlights-canadian-chronic-disease-surveillance.pdfGoogle Scholar
Rentería, M. A., Vonk, J. M., Felix, G., Avila, J. F., Zahodne, L. B., Dalchand, E., Frazer, K. M., Martinez, M. N., Shouel, H. L., & Manly, J. J. (2019). Illiteracy, dementia risk, and cognitive trajectories among older adults with low education. Neurology, 93(24), e2247–e2256.Google Scholar
Rizzi, L., Rosset, I., & Roriz-Cruz, M. (2014). Global epidemiology of dementia: Alzheimer’s and vascular types. BioMed Research International, 2014.Google Scholar
Roser, M., & Ortiz-Ospina, E. (2016). Literacy. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/Google Scholar
Ruano, L., Araújo, N., Branco, M., Barreto, R., Moreira, S., Pais, R., Cruz, V. T., Lunet, N., & Barros, H. (2019). Prevalence and causes of cognitive impairment and dementia in a population-based cohort from northern Portugal. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease & Other Dementias®, 34(1), 49–56.Google Scholar
Russ, T. C. (2018). Intelligence, cognitive reserve, and dementia: Time for intervention? JAMA Network Open, 1(5), e181724–e181724.Google Scholar
Schmidt, R., Freidl, W., Fazekas, F., Reinhart, B., Grieshofer, P., Koch, M., Eber, B., Schumacher, M., Polmin, K., & Lechner, H. (1994). The Mattis Dementia Rating Scale: Normative data from 1,001 healthy volunteers. Neurology, 44(5), 964–964.Google Scholar
Schneider, A. L., Selvin, E., Latour, L., Turtzo, L. C., Coresh, J., Mosley, T., Ling, G., & Gottesman, R. F. (2021). Head injury and 25‐year risk of dementia. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 17(9), 1432–1441.Google Scholar
Seth, M. J. (2002). Education Fever. University of Hawaii Press.Google Scholar
Seth, M. J. (2017). South Korea’s economic development, 1948–1996. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History.Google Scholar
Shibayama, H., Kasahara, Y., & Kobayashi, H. (1986). Prevalence of dementia in a Japanese elderly population. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 74(2), 144–151.Google Scholar
Shin, I. S., Kim, J. M., Yoon, J. S., Kim, S. J., Yang, S. J., Kim, W. J., Lee, S. H., Kwak, J. Y., & Lee, H. Y. (2002). Prevalence rate and risk factors of dementia compared between urban and rural communities of the metropolitan Kwangju area. Journal of Korean Neuropsychiatric Association, 41(6), 1165–1173.Google Scholar
Shin, M. (2017). Risk for Cognitive Aging and Dementia in the Elderly Korean Population with Baseline Low Cognitive Performance. Doctoral dissertation, Seoul National University.Google Scholar
Shively, S., Scher, A. I., Perl, D. P., & Diaz-Arrastia, R. (2012). Dementia resulting from traumatic brain injury: What is the pathology? Archives of Neurology, 69(10), 1245–1251.Google Scholar
Shulman, K. I. (2000). Clock‐drawing: Is it the ideal cognitive screening test? International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 15(6), 548–561.Google Scholar
Spada, R. S., Stella, G., Calabrese, S., Bosco, P., Anello, G., Guéant-Rodriguez, R. M., Romano, A., Benamghar, L., & Guéant, J. L. (2009). Prevalence of dementia in mountainous village of Sicily. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 283(1–2), 62–65.Google Scholar
Stern, Y. (2012). Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer’s disease. The Lancet Neurology, 11(11), 1006–1012.Google Scholar
Suh, G. H., Kim, J. K., & Cho, M. J. (2003). Community study of dementia in the older Korean rural population. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 37(5), 606–612.Google Scholar
Suh, S. W., Kim, Y. J., Kwak, K. P., Kim, K., Kim, M. D., Kim, B. S., Kim, B. J., Kim, S. G., Kim, J. L., Kim, T. H., Moon, S. W., Park, K. W., Park, J. I., Park, J. H., Bae, J. N., Seo, J., Seong, S. J., Son, S. J., Shin, I. S., … & Kim, K. W. (2021). A 9-Year Comparison of Dementia Prevalence in Korea: Results of NaSDEK 2008 and 2017. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 81(2), 821–831.Google Scholar
Suk, J. S., Chey, J. Y., & Kim, H. Y. (2010). An additional normative study of the Korean-dementia rating scale. Korean J Clin Psychol, 29(2), 559–572.Google Scholar
Sun, Y., Lee, H. J., Yang, S. C., Chen, T. F., Lin, K. N., Lin, C. C., Wang, P. N., Tang, L. Y., & Chiu, M. J. (2014). A nationwide survey of mild cognitive impairment and dementia, including very mild dementia, in Taiwan. PLoS ONE, 9(6), e100303.Google Scholar
Sung, S. (2003). Women reconciling paid and unpaid work in a Confucian welfare state: The case of South Korea. Social Policy & Administration, 37(4), 342–360.Google Scholar
Tola-Arribas, M. A., Yugueros, M. I., Garea, M. J., Ortega-Valín, F., Cerón-Fernández, A., Fernández-Malvido, B., San José-Gallegos, A., González-Touya, M., Botrán-Velicia, A., Iglesias-Rodríguez, V., & Díaz-Gómez, B. (2013). Prevalence of dementia and subtypes in Valladolid, northwestern Spain: The DEMINVALL study. PLoS ONE, 8(10), e77688.Google Scholar
Tsolaki, M., Fountoulakis, C., Pavlopoulos, I., Chatzi, E., & Kazis, A. (1999). Prevalence and incidence of Alzheimers disease and other dementing disorders in Pylea, Greece. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 14(3), 138–148.Google Scholar
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2017). World Population Aging 2017.Google Scholar
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2019a). World Population Ageing 2019: Highlights (ST/ESA/SER.A/430).Google Scholar
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2019b). World Population Prospects 2019, Volume I: Comprehensive Tables (ST/ESA/SER.A/426).Google Scholar
Valenzuela, M. J., & Sachdev, P. (2006). Brain reserve and dementia: A systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 36(4), 441–454.Google Scholar
Varangis, E. & Stern, Y. (2020). Cognitive Reserve. In Thomas, A. K. & Gutchess, A., (eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Cognitive Aging: A Life Course Perspective (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology), pp.32–46. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108552684Google Scholar
Vemuri, P., Wiste, H. J., Weigand, S. D., Shaw, L. M., Trojanowski, J. Q., Weiner, M. W., Knopman, D. S., Petersen, R. C., & Jack, C. R.; Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (2009). MRI and CSF biomarkers in normal, MCI, and AD subjects: Diagnostic discrimination and cognitive correlations. Neurology, 73(4), 287–293.Google Scholar
Virués‐Ortega, J., de Pedro‐Cuesta, J., Vega, S., Seijo‐Martínez, M., Saz, P., Rodríguez, F., Rodríguez-Laso, A., Reñé, R., de las Heras, S. P., Mateos, R., Martínez-Martín, P., Mahillo-Fernandéz, M., López-Pousa, S., Lobo, A., Reglà, J. L., Gascón, J., García, F. J., Fernandéz-Martínez, M., Boix, R.,... & del Barrio, J. L.; Spanish Epidemiological Studies on Ageing Group. (2011). Prevalence and European comparison of dementia in a ≥75‐year‐old composite population in Spain. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 123(5), 316–324.Google Scholar
Vogel, E. F. (1991). The Four Little Dragons: The Spread of Industrialization in East Asia, vol. 3. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wang, Y. Q., Jia, R. X., Liang, J. H., Li, J., Qian, S., Li, J. Y., & Xu, Y. (2019). Dementia in China (2015–2050) estimated using the 1% population sampling survey in 2015. Geriatrics & Gerontology International, 19(11), 1096–1100.Google Scholar
Willerman, L., Schultz, R., Rutledge, J. N., & Bigler, E. D. (1991). In vivo brain size and intelligence. Intelligence, 15(2), 223–228.Google Scholar
Winblad, B., Palmer, K., Kivipelto, M., Jelic, V., Fratiglioni, L., Wahlund, L. O., Nordberg, A., Bäckman, L., Albert, M., Almkvist, O., Arai, H., Basun, H., Blennow, K., de Leon, M., DeCarli, C., Erkinjuntti, J., Giacobini, E., Graff, C., Hardy, J., … & Petersen, R. C. (2004). Mild cognitive impairment–beyond controversies, towards a consensus: Report of the International Working Group on Mild Cognitive Impairment. Journal of Internal Medicine, 256(3), 240–246.Google Scholar
Witelson, S. F., Beresh, H., & Kigar, D. L. (2006). Intelligence and brain size in 100 postmortem brains: Sex, lateralization and age factors. Brain, 129(2), 386–398.Google Scholar
Wolf, H., Hensel, A., Kruggel, F., Riedel-Heller, S. G., Arendt, T., Wahlund, L. O., & Gertz, H. J. (2004). Structural correlates of mild cognitive impairment. Neurobiology of aging, 25(7), 913–924.Google Scholar
Wolf, M. J, Emerson, J. W., Esty, D. C., de Sherbinin, A., Wendling, Z. A., et al. (2022). 2022 Environmental Performance Index. New Haven, CT: Yale Center for Environmental Law & Policy. epi.yale.eduGoogle Scholar
Woo, J. I., Lee, J. H., Yoo, K. Y., Kim, C. Y., Kim, Y. I., & Shin, Y. S. (1998). Prevalence estimation of dementia in a rural area of Korea. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 46(8), 983–987.Google Scholar
World Bank (2021a). Gross National Income, Republic of Korea. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.MKTP.CD?locations=KRGoogle Scholar
World Bank (2021b). Life expectancy, Republic of Korea. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=KRGoogle Scholar
World Health Organization. (2017). Global action plan on the public health response to dementia 2017–2025.Google Scholar
Wu, Y. T., Ali, G. C., Guerchet, M., Prina, A. M., Chan, K. Y., Prince, M., & Brayne, C. (2018). Prevalence of dementia in mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Epidemiology, 47(3), 709–719.Google Scholar
Yang, S. S., Gong, B. H., & Kim, H. J. (2010). A Research on the World Trend in Compulsory Education and its Development Strategies. Korean Educational Development Institute (KEDI).Google Scholar
Youn, J. C., Lee, D. Y., Kim, K. W., & Woo, J. I. (2005). Epidemiology of dementia. Psychiatr. Invest., 2(1), 28–39.Google Scholar
Zhang, M. Y., Katzman, R., Salmon, D., Jin, H., Cai, G. J., Wang, Z. Y., Qu, G. Y., Grant, I., Yu, E., Levy, P., Klauber, M. R., & Liu, W. T. (1990). The prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease in Shanghai, China: Impact of age, gender, and education. Annals of Neurology, 27(4), 428–437.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×