Introduction

Summary

The legend of Theophilus embodies a broad range of the most compelling questions of the medieval era. Above all, it is a story that envisions the individual's and the institution's roles in the rocky path to individual salvation. The story explores the nature of social bonds through its depiction of homage and contracts. It explores spiritual bonds through its depiction of the appearance and intervention of the Virgin. It is a meditation on evil and temptation and whether or not man can see, confront, and control these dark forces. It is a story about the variety of ways the Church provides its flock with strategies to turn away from evil and toward the good. These include the more idiosyncratic actions of prayer, alms, fasting, tears, confession, and the more institutional path of sacraments, priests, bishops, and other members of the Church community, as well as the direct, higher intervention of the saints, the Virgin, and God. While the story can become a quite existential meditation on individual salvation, like the one we see in Rutebeuf, it more commonly focuses on the role of the wider Church and social community in individual salvation. The legend's popularity is a tribute to its ability to make the plight of individual salvation tangible and visible at a time when that salvation must seem highly uncertain.

A quick summary of the legend will help the reader see the connections to these larger issues. The story almost always begins by presenting Theophilus as a good man, a highly placed vice-lord or vidame. When his bishop dies, Theophilus is appointed to succeed him. Theophilus refuses, fearful that the position will subject him to vain glory. Another clerk is appointed bishop and promptly dismisses Theophilus. Theophilus is devastated and impoverished. Ready to do anything to get his position back, he turns to a Jew as an intermediary to seek the help of the Devil. The Jew leads him to the Devil. Theophilus pays homage to the Devil, making a signed contract that is notably authenticated with a wax seal. Immediately he gets his power back twofold. After enjoying his ill-gotten gain for some time, Theophilus has a crisis of conscience and goes to a church to pray to the Virgin.